UNIT III

Staff Incharge
Dr.S.V.Kayalvizhi
 Hour 20
• 18/9/2020
• 2nd hour
GENERATION OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND HIGH
CURRENTS 9
Generation of High DC voltage: Rectifiers,
voltage multipliers, vandegraff generator:
generation of high impulse voltage: single and
multistage Marx circuits – generation of high
AC voltages: cascaded transformers, resonant
transformer and tesla coil- generation of
switching surges – generation of impulse
currents - Triggering and control of impulse
generators.
GENERATION OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND HIGH
CURRENTS
Generation of high voltages and high
currents are required for the purpose of
testing various types of power system
equipment. Test transformers normally used
for the purpose have low power rating
but high voltage ratings. These transformers
are mainly used for short time tests on high
voltage equipments.
Purpose
Classification
 Hour 21
• 23/9/2020
• 4th hour
Cascaded voltage doublers are used when larger output voltages are
needed without changing the input transformer voltage level.
A typical voltage doubler is shown in Fig. 6.3b and its input and output
waveforms are shown in Fig. 6.3c. The rectifiers R1 and R2 with
transformer T1 and capacitors C1 and C2 produce an output voltage of 2 V
in the same way as described above.
This circuit is duplicated and connected in series or cascade to obtain a
further voltage doubling to 4 V. T is an isolating transformer to give an
insulation for 2 Vmax since the transformer T2 is at a potential of 2Vmax
above the ground.
The voltage distribution along the rectifier string R1 , R2 , R3 , and R4 is
made uniform by having capacitors C1 , C2 , C3 , and C4 of equal values.
The arrangement may be extended to give 6 V, 8 V, and so on, by repeating
further stages with suitable isolating transformers.
In all the voltage doubler circuits, if valves are used, the filament
transformers have to be suitably designed and insulated, as all the
cathodes will not be at the same potential from ground. The arrangement
becomes cumbersome if more than 4 V is needed with cascaded steps.
 Electrostatic machines
Basic principle
In electromagnetic machines, current carrying
conductors are moved in a magnetic field,so
that the mechanical energy is converted into
electrical energy
The Van de Graaff generator is one such
electrostatic machine which generates very
high voltages, with small output current
Van de Graaff Generators
The schematic diagram of a Van de Graaff generator is shown
in Fig.
The generator is usually enclosed in an earthed metallic
cylindrical vessel and is operated under pressure or in vacuum.
Charge is sprayed onto an insulating moving belt from corona
points at a potential of 10 to 100 kV above earth and is
removed and collected from the belt connected to the inside
of an insulated metal electrode through which the belt moves.
The belt is driven by an electric motor at a speed of 1000 to
2000 metres per minute.
The potential of the high voltage electrode above the earth at
any instant is V = Q/C, where Q is the charge stored and C is
the capacitance of the highvoltage electrode to earth. The
potential of the high-voltage electrode rises at a rate
A steady potential will be attained by the high-
voltage electrode when the leakage currents and
the load current are equal to the charging current.
The shape of the high-voltage electrode is so made
with re-entrant edges as to avoid high surface field
gradients, corona and other local discharges. The
shape of the electrode is nearly spherical.
The charging of the belt is done by the lower spray points which are sharp needles
and connected to a dc source of about 10 to 100 kV, so that the corona is maintained
between the moving belt and the needles.
The charge from the corona points is collected by the collecting needles from the
belt and is transferred on to the high-voltage electrode as the belt enters into the
high-voltage electrode.
The belt returns with the charge dropped, and fresh charge is sprayed onto it as it
passes through the lower corona point. Usually, in order to make the charging more
effective and to utilize the return path of the belt for charging purposes, a self-
inducing arrangement or a second corona-point system excited by a rectifier inside
the high-voltage terminal is employed.
To obtain a self-charging system, the upper pulley is connected to the collector
needle and is therefore maintained at a potential higher than that of the high-voltage
terminal.
Thus, a second row of corona points connected to the inside of the highvoltage
terminal and directed towards the pulley above its point of entry into the terminal
gives a corona discharge to the belt. This neutralizes any charge on the belt and
leaves an excess of opposite polarity to the terminal to travel down with the belt to
the bottom charging point. Thus, for a given belt speed the rate of charging is
doubled.
Van de Graaff generators are useful for very
high-voltage and low-current applications. The
output voltage is easily controlled by
controlling the corona source voltage and the
rate of charging. The voltage can be stabilized
to 0.01%. These are extremely flexible and
precise machines for voltage control.
(b) Electrostatic Generators
Van de Graaff generators are essentially high-
voltage but low power devices, and their power
rating seldom exceeds few tens of kilowatts. As such,
electrostatic machines which effectively convert
machanical energy into electrical energy using
variable capacitor principle were developed. These
are essentially duals of electromagnetic machines
and are constant voltage variable capacitance
machines. An electrostatic generator consists of a
stator with interleaved rotor vanes forming a
variable capacitor and operates in vaccum.
 Hour 22
• 24/9/2020
• 2nd hour
A schematic diagram of a synchronous electrostatic
generator with interleaved stator and rotor plates is
shown in Fig.
The rotor is insulated from the ground, and is
maintained at a potential of V. The rotor to stator
capacitance varies from Cm to C0 and the stator is
connected to a common point between two rectifiers
across the dc output which is -E volts. When the
capacitance of the rotor is maximum ( Cm), the rectifier
B does not conduct and the stator is at ground potential.
The potential E is applied across the rectifier α and V is
applied across Cm. As the rotor rotates, the capacitance
C decrease and the voltage across C increases.
Thus, the stator becomes more negative with respect to
ground.
When the stator reaches the line potential −E the rectifier A
conducts, and further movement of the rotor causes the
current to flow from the generator. Rectifier B will now have E
across it and the charge left in the generator will be Q0 = C0 (V
+ E) + E ( Cs + Cr ), where Cs is the stator capacitance to earth,
Cr is the capacitance of rectifier B to earth, and C0 is the
minimum capacitance value of C (stator to rotor capacitance).
A generator of this type with an output voltage of one MV and
a field gradient of 1 MV/cm in high vacuum and having 16
rotor poles, 50 rotor plates of 4 feet maximum and 2 feet
minimum diameter, and at a speed of 4000 rpm would develop
7 MW of power.
GENERATION OF HIGH ALTERNATING
VOLTAGES
 Hour 23
• 25/9/2020
• 2nd hour
 Generation of High-Frequency ac High
Voltages
• High-frequency high voltages are required for rectifier dc
power supplies and also, for testing electrical apparatus for
switching surges
• The advantages of these high-frequency transformers are:
• (i) the absence of iron core in transformers and hence saving
in cost and size,
• (ii) pure sine-wave output,
• (iii) slow build-up of voltage over a few cycles and hence no
damage due to switching surges, and
• (iv) uniform distribution of voltage across the winding coils
due to subdivision of coil stack into a number of units.
The commonly used high-frequency resonant transformer
is the Tesla coil, which is a doubly tuned resonant circuit
shown schematically in Fig. 6.13a.
The primary voltage rating is 10 kV and the secondary may
be rated to as high as 500 to 1000 kV.
The primary is fed from a dc or ac supply through the
capacitor C1 .
A spark gap G connected across the primary is triggered at
the desired voltage V1 which induces a high self-excitation
in the secondary.
The primary and the secondary windings (L1 and L2 ) are
wound on an insulated former with no core (air-cored) and
are immersed in oil. The windings are tuned to a frequency
of 10 to 100 kHz by means of the capacitors C1 and C2 .
The primary coil is wound on an insulator fibre tube of about 1 m
length to represent a cylindrical or helical winding and consists of
a few tens of turns (usually copper strip or tubings).
The secondary winding is spaced quite away from the primary
winding on another concentric fibre or pyrex tube with a few
thousand turns.
The whole assembly will be immersed in an oil tank under
pressure.
With separate bushings taken out for the primary and the
secondary windings, the primary winding is supplied through a
high-voltage capacitor rectifier unit rated for 10 kV to 50 kV or
more and the power rating of the transformer may be 10 kVA or
more.
The output voltage V2 is a function of the parameters L1 ,L2 , C1 ,
C2 , and the mutual inductance M. Usually, the winding
resistances will be small and contribute only for damping of the
oscillations.
Tesla coil equivalent circuit
GENERATION OF IMPULSE VOLTAGES
Impulse waves are specified by defining their rise of front
time, fall or tail time to 50% peak value, and the value of the
peak voltage. Thus 1.2/50 μs, 1000 kV wave represents an
impulse voltage wave with a front time of 1.2 μs, fall time to
50% peak value of 50 μs, and a peak value of 1000 kV.
When impulse waveshapes are recorded, the initial portion of
the wave may not be clearly defined or sometimes may be
missing.
Moreover, due to disturbances it may contain superimposed
oscillations in the rising portion. Hence, the front and tail
times have to be redefined
Standard Impulse Waveshapes
Circuits for Producing Impulse Waves
A double exponential waveform of the type mentioned in Eq. (6.15)
may be produced in the laboratory with a combination of a series R-L-C
circuit under over damped conditions or by the combination of two R-C
circuits.
Different equivalent circuits that produce impulse waves are given in
Figs 6.15a to d.
Circuit shown in Fig. 6.15a is limited to model generators only, and
commercial generators employ circuits shown in Figs 6.15b to 6.15d.
A capacitor ( C1 or C) previously charged to a particular dc voltage is
suddenly discharged into the waveshaping network (L − R or R1 R2 C2
or other combination) by closing the switch S.
The discharge voltage V0 (t) shown in Fig. 6.15 gives the desired double
exponential waveshape.
Circuit for producing impulse waves
Multistage Impulse Generators—Marx Circuit

In the above discussion, the generator capacitance C1 is to be

first charged and then discharged into the wave-shaping circuits.
A single capacitor C1 may be used for voltages up to 200 kV.
Beyond this voltage, a single capacitor and its charging unit
may be too costly, and the size becomes very large.
The cost and size of the impulse generator increases at a rate
of the square or cube of the voltage rating. Hence, for
producing very high voltages, a bank of capacitors are charged in
parallel and then discharged in series.
The arrangement for charging the capacitors in parallel and
then connecting them in series for discharging was originally
proposed by Marx. Nowadays, modified Marx circuits are used
for the multistage impulse generators.
The schematic diagram of Marx circuit and its modification are
shown in Figs 6.17a and 6.17b, respectively.
Usually the charging resistance Rs is chosen to limit the
charging current to about 50 to 100 mA, and the generator
capacitance C is chosen such that the product CRs is about 10 s
to 1 min.
The gap spacing is chosen such that the breakdown voltage of
the gap G is greater than the charging voltage V. Thus, all the
capacitances are charged to the voltage V in about 1 minute.
When the impulse generator is to be discharged, the gaps G
are made to spark over simultaneously by some external
means. Thus, all the capacitors C get connected in series and
discharge into the load capacitance or the test object.
The discharge time constant CR1 /n (for n stages) will be very very small
(microseconds), compared to the charging time constant CRs which will
be few seconds. Hence, no discharge takes place through the charging
resistors Rs .
In the Marx circuit is of Fig. 6.17a the impulse wave-shaping circuit is
connected externally to the capacitor unit.
In Fig. 6.17b, the modified Marx circuit is shown, wherein the
resistances R1 and R2 are incorporated inside the unit. R1 is divided
into n parts equal to R1 /n and put in series with the gap G. R2 is also
divided into n parts and arranged across each capacitor unit after the
gap G.
This arrangement saves space, and also the cost is reduced. But, in
case the waveshape is to be varied widely, the variation becomes
difficult.
The additional advantages gained by distributing R1 and R2 inside the
unit are that the control resistors are smaller in size and the efficiency
is high.
Marx circuit
Multistage impulse generator
 Components of a Multistage Impulse
Generator
A multistage impulse generator requires several components parts for
flexibility and for the production of the required waveshape.
(i) dc Charging Set The charging unit should be capable of giving a variable dc
voltage of either polarity to charge the generator capacitors to the required
value.
(ii) Charging Resistors These will be non-inductive high value resistors of about
10 to 100 kiloohms. Each resistor will be designed to have a maximum voltage
between 50 and 100 kV.
(iii) Generator Capacitors and Spark Gaps These are arranged vertically one
over the other with all the spark gaps aligned. The capacitors are designed for
several charging and discharging operations. On dead short circuit, the
capacitors will be capable of giving 10 kA of current. The spark gaps will be
usually spheres or hemispheres of 10 to 25 cm diameter.
(iv) Wave-shaping Resistors and Capacitors Resistors will be non-inductive
wound type and should be capable of discharging impulse currents of 1000 A
or more. Each resistor will be designed for a maximum voltage of 50 to 100 kV
(v) Triggering System This consists of trigger spark gaps
to cause spark breakdown of the gaps (see Sec. 6.5).
(vi) Voltage Dividers Voltage dividers of either damped
capacitor or resistor type and an oscilloscope with
recording arrangement are provided for measurement
of the voltages across the test object. Sometimes a
sphere gap is also provided for calibration purposes
(see Chapter 7 for details).
(vii) Gas Insulated Impulse Generators Impulse
generators rated for 4 MV or above will be very tall and
require large space. As such they are usually located in
open space and are housed in an insulated enclosure
 Generation of Switching Surges
Nowadays, in extra-high-voltage transmission lines and power systems,
switching surge is an important factor that affects the design of
insulation. All transmission lines rated for 220 kV and above,
incorporate switching surge spark overvoltage for their insulation levels.
A switching surge is a short duration transient voltage produced in the
system due to a sudden opening or closing of a switch or circuit breaker
or due to an arcing at a fault in the system.
The waveform is not unique. The transient voltage may be an oscillatory
wave or a damped oscillatory wave of frequency ranging from few
hundred hertz to few kilohertz.
It may also be considered as a slow rising impulse having a wave front
time of 0.1 to 10 μs, and a tail time of one to several μs. Thus, switching
surges contain larger energy than the lightning impulse voltages.
Several circuits have been adopted for
producing switching surges.
They are grouped as
(i) impulse generator circuit modified to give
longer duration waveshapes,
(ii) power transformers or testing transformers
excited by dc voltages giving oscillatory waves
and these include Tesla coils.
The arrangement is the same as that of an
impulse generator. The values of R1 and R2 for
producing waveshapes of long duration, such as
100/1000 μs or 400/4000 μs, will range from 1
to 5 kilo-ohms and 5 to 20 kilo-ohms
respectively. Thus, R1 is about 20 to 30% of R2 .
The efficiency of the generator gets considerably
reduced to about 50% or even less. Moreover,
the values of the charging resistors R1 are to be
increased to very high values as these come in
parallel with R2 in the discharge circuit.
Circuits for producing switching surge
voltages
The circuit given in Fig. 6.18b produces unidirectional
damped oscillations. With the use of an inductor L, the
value of R1 is considerably reduced, and the efficiency
of the generator increases. The damped oscillations
may have a frequency of 1 to 10 kHz depending on the
circuit parameters. Usually, the maximum value of the
switching surge obtained is 250 to 300 kV with an
impulse generator having a nominal rating of 1000 kV
and 25 kWs.
Bellaschi et al. used only an inductor L of low resistance
to produce switching impulse up to 500 kV. A sphere
gap was included in parallel with the test object for
voltage measurement and also for producing chopped
waves.
Switching surges of very high peaks and long duration
can be obtained by using the circuit shown in Fig.
6.19.
An impulse generator condenser C1 charged to a low
voltage dc (20 to 25 kV) is discharged into the low-
voltage winding of a power or testing transformer.
The high-voltage winding is connected in parallel to a
load capacitance C2 , a potential divider R2 , a sphere
gap S, and test object. Through an autotransformer
action, switching surge of proper waveshape can be
generated across the test object. The efficiency
obtained by this method is high but the transformer
should be capable of withstanding very high voltages.
Circuit for producing switching using a
transformer
GENERATION OF IMPULSE CURRENTS
Lightning discharges involve both high voltage
impulses and high current impulses on transmission
lines.
Protective gear like surge diverters have to discharge
the lightning currents without damage. Therefore,
generation of impulse current waveforms of high
magnitude (= 100 kA peak) find application in test
work as well as in basic research on non-linear
resistors, electric arc studies, and studies relating to
electric plasmas in high current discharges.
Definition of Impulse Current Waveforms
The waveshapes used in testing surge diverters are 4/10 and 8/20
μs, the figures respectively representing the nominal wave-front
and wave-tail times (see Fig. 6.14).
The tolerances allowed on these are ±10% only. Apart from the
standard impulse current waves, rectangular waves of long
duration are also used for testing. The waveshape should be
nominally rectangular in shape. The rectangular waves generally
have durations of the order of 0.5 to 5 μs, with rise and fall times
of the waves being less than ±10% of their total duration.
The tolerance allowed on the peak value is +20% and -0% (the
peak value may be more than the specified value but not less).
The duration of the wave is defined as the total time of the wave
during which the current is at least 10% of its peak value.
Circuit for Producing Impulse Current Waves

For producing impulse currents of large value, a bank of

capacitors connected in parallel are charged to a specified
voltage and are discharged through a series R-L circuit as
shown in Fig. 6.20. C represents a bank of capacitors
connected in parallel which are charged from a dc source
to a voltage up to 200 kV. R represents the dynamic
resistance of the test object and the resistance of the
circuit and the shunt. L is an air cored high current
inductor, usually a spiral. If the capacitor is charged to a
voltage V and discharged when the spark gap is triggered,
the current im will be given by the equation
 Generation of High Impulse Currents
For producing large values of impulse currents, a number of capacitors are
charged in parallel and discharged in parallel into the circuit. The arrangement of
capacitors is shown in Fig. 6.20c.
In order to minimize the effective inductance, the capacitors are subdivided into
smaller units. If there are n1 groups of capacitors, each consisting of n2 units and
if L0 is the inductance of the common discharge path,L1 is that of each group
andL2 is that of each unit, then the effective inductance L is given by Also, the
arrangement of capacitors into a horse-shoe shaped layout minimizes the
effective load inductance (Plate 4).
The essential parts of an impulse current generator are
(i) a dc charging unit giving a variable voltage to the capacitor bank,
(ii) capacitors of high value (0.5 to 5 μF) each with very low self-inductance,
capable of giving high short circuit currents,
(iii) an additional air cored inductor of high current value,
(iv) proper shunts and oscillograph for measurement purposes, and
(v) a triggering unit and spark gap for the initiation of the current generator.
 TRIPPING AND CONTROL OF IMPULSE
GENERATORS
• In large impulse generators, the spark gaps are generally
sphere gaps or gaps formed by hemispherical electrodes.
The gaps are arranged such that sparking of one gap
results in automatic sparking of other gaps as overvoltage
is impressed on the other. In order to have consistency in
sparking, irradiation from an ultra-violet lamp is provided
from the bottom to all the gaps. To trip the generator at a
predetermined time, the spark gaps may be mounted on a
movable frame, and the gap distance is reduced by moving
the movable electrodes closer. This method is difficult and
does not assure consistent and controlled tripping.
• A simple method of controlled tripping consists of making the first gap a three
electrode gap and firing it from a controlled source. Figure 6.23 gives the schematic
arrangement of a three-electrode gap. The first stage of the impulse generator is fitted
with a three-electrode gap, and the central electrode is maintained at a potential in
between that of the top and the bottom electrodes with the resistors R1 and R1 . The
tripping is initiated by applying a pulse to the thyratron G by closing the switch S. The
capacitor C produces an exponentially decaying pulse of positive polarity. The pulse
goes and initiates the oscilloscope time base. The thyratron conducts on receiving the
pulse from the switch S and produces a negative pulse through the capacitance C1 at
the central electrode of the three electrode gap. Hence, the voltage between the
central electrode and the top electrode of the three electrode gap goes above its
sparking potential and thus the gap conducts. The time lag required for the thyratron
firing and breakdown of the three electrode gap ensures that the sweep circuit of the
oscilloscope begins before the start of the impulse generator voltage. The resistance
R2 ensures decoupling of voltage oscillations produced at the spark gap entering the
oscilloscope through the common trip circuit.
• The three-electrode gap requires larger space and an elaborate
construction. Nowadays a trigatron gap shown in Fig. 6.24 is used, and this
requires much smaller voltage for operation compared to the three-
electrode gap. A trigatron gap consists of a high-voltage spherical electrode
of suitable size, an earthed main electrode of spherical shape, and a trigger
electrode through the main electrode. The trigger electrode is a metal rod
with an annular clearance of about 1 mm fitted into the main electrode
through a bushing. The trigatron is connected to a pulse circuit as shown in
Fig. 6.24b. Tripping of the impulse generator is effected by a trip pulse
which produces a spark between the trigger electrode and the earthed
sphere. Due to space charge effects and distortion of the field in the main
gap, sparkover of the main gap occurs. The trigatron gap is polarity
sensitive and a proper polarity pulse www.EngineeringEBooksPdf.com
should be applied for correct operation