REGULATION AND CONTROL

ROOT LOCUS

By Tewedage Sileshi
Lecture Outline

 Construction of root loci

 Angle and Magnitude Conditions
 Illustrative Examples

 Closed loop stability via root locus

 Example of Root Locus

 Root Locus of 1st order systems
 Root Locus of 2nd order systems
 Root Locus of Higher order systems
Construction of Root Loci

 Finding the roots of the characteristic equation of degree higher than 3 is

laborious and will need computer solution.

 A simple method for finding the roots of the characteristic equation has been
developed by W. R. Evans and used extensively in control engineering.

 This method, called the root-locus method, is one in which the roots of the
characteristic equation are plotted for all values of a system parameter.
 Cont’d
 The roots corresponding to a particular value of this parameter can then
be located on the resulting graph.

 Note that the parameter is usually the gain, but any other variable of the
open-loop transfer function may be used.

 By using the root-locus method the designer can predict the effects on the
location of the closed-loop poles of varying the gain value or adding
open-loop poles and/or open-loop zeros.
Angle & Magnitude Conditions
 In constructing the root loci angle and magnitude conditions are
important.
 Consider the system shown in following figure.

 The closed loop transfer function is

C (s) G (s)

R( s) 1  G ( s) H ( s)
Construction of Root Loci

 The characteristic equation is obtained by setting the denominator

polynomial equal to zero.
1  G ( s) H ( s)  0
 Or
G ( s ) H ( s )  1
 Where G(s)H(s) is a ratio of polynomial in s.
 Since G(s)H(s) is a complex quantity it can be split into angle and
magnitude part.
Angle & Magnitude Conditions
 The angle of G(s)H(s)=-1 is

G ( s ) H ( s )    1
G ( s ) H ( s )  180 (2k  1)

 Where k=1,2,3…
 The magnitude of G(s)H(s)=-1 is

G ( s) H ( s)   1
G ( s) H ( s)  1
 Cont’d
 Angle Condition
G ( s) H ( s )  180 (2k  1) (k  1,2,3...)
 Magnitude Condition
G (s) H (s)  1
 The values of s that fulfill both the angle and magnitude conditions are the roots of the
characteristic equation, or the closed-loop poles.

 A locus of the points in the complex plane satisfying the angle condition alone is the
root locus.
Angle and Magnitude Conditions (Graphically)
 To apply Angle and magnitude conditions graphically we must first draw the poles and
zeros of G(s)H(s) in s-plane.
 For example if G(s)H(s) is given by

Pole-Zero Map
1

s 1
0.5

G ( s) H ( s) 

Imaginary Axis
s ( s  3)( s  4) 0

-0.5

-1
-4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0
Real Axis
 p
Pole-Zero Map
Cont’d
1

0.5

θ1 θ2 θ3
Imaginary Axis

ɸ1
0

G ( s ) H ( s ) s  p  1  1   2   3
-0.5
• If angle of G(s)H(s) at s=p is equal to ±180o(2k+1)
the point p is on root locus.
-1
-4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0
Real Axis
 Cont’d
p
Pole-Zero Map
1

0.5
A B1
B3 B2
Imaginary Axis

s  1 s p A
G(s) H (s) s  p 
-0.5 
s s p s  3 s p s  4 s p B1 B2 B3

-1
-4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0
Real Axis
Illustrative Example#1

 Apply angle and magnitude conditions on following unity feedback system.

 Cont’d
 Here K
G(s) H (s) 
s ( s  1)( s  2)
 For the given system the angle condition becomes

K
G ( s ) H ( s )  
s ( s  1)( s  2)

G ( s) H ( s )  K  s  ( s  1)  ( s  2)

K  s  ( s  1)  ( s  2)  180(2k  1)
 Cont’d

 For example to check whether s = -0.25 is on the root locus or not we can
apply angle condition as follows.

G ( s ) H ( s ) s  0.25   K s  0.25
 s s  0.25  ( s  1) s  0.25  ( s  2) s  0.25

G ( s ) H ( s ) s  0.25  (0.25)  (0.75)  (1.75)

G ( s ) H ( s ) s  0.25  180  0  0

G ( s ) H ( s ) s  0.25  180(2k  1)
 Cont’d
 Here

K
G ( s) H ( s) 
s ( s  1)( s  2)

 And the Magnitude condition becomes

K
G (s) H (s)  1
s ( s  1)( s  2)
 Cont’d
 Now we know from angle condition that the point s=-0.25 is on the rot locus. But we do
not know the value of gain K at that specific point.

 We can use magnitude condition to determine the value of gain at any point on the root
locus.
K
1
s( s  1)( s  2) s  0.25

K
1
(0.25)(0.25  1)(0.25  2) s  0.25
 Cont’d
K
1
(0.25)(0.25  1)(0.25  2) s  0.25

K
1
(0.25)(0.75)(1.75)

K
1
 0.3285
K
1 K  0.328
0.328
 Cont’d
Home work:

 Check whether s=-0.2+j0.937 is on the root locus or not ?

 Check whether s=-1+j2 is on the root locus or not ?
 If s=-0.2+j0.937 is on the root locus determine the value of gain K at
that point.
 If s=-1+j2 is on the root locus determine the value of gain K at that
point.
Construction of root loci
 Step-1: The first step in constructing a root-locus plot is to locate the open-loop poles
and zeros in s-plane.
Pole-Zero Map
1

0.5

Imaginary Axis
0

-0.5

K
G ( s) H ( s) 
s ( s  1)( s  2) -1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis
 Cont’d
 Step-2: Determine the root loci on the real axis.

Pole-Zero Map
 To determine the root loci on real axis 1

we select some test points.

0.5
 e.g: p1 (on positive real axis). p1

Imaginary Axis
0

 The angle condition is not satisfied.

-0.5
 Hence, there is no root locus on the
positive real axis. -1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis
 Cont’d
 Next, select a test point on the negative real
axis between 0 and –1. Pole-Zero Map
1
 Then
0.5

p2

Imaginary Axis
 Thus 0

-0.5

 The angle condition is satisfied. Therefore, the

-1
portion of the negative real axis between 0 and -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
Real Axis
0 1 2

–1 forms a portion of the root locus.

 Cont’d
 Now, select a test point on the negative real axis
between -1 and –2. Pole-Zero Map
1
 Then
0.5

p3

Imaginary Axis
 Thus 0

-0.5

 The angle condition is not satisfied. Therefore,

-1
the negative real axis between -1 and –2 is not a -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
Real Axis
0 1 2

part of the root locus.

 Cont’d

 Similarly, test point on the negative Pole-Zero Map

1
real axis between -3 and – ∞ satisfies
the angle condition. 0.5

p4

Imaginary Axis
 Therefore, the negative real axis 0

between -3 and – ∞ is part of the root -0.5

locus.
-1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis
 Pole-Zero Map
Cont’d
1

0.5
Imaginary Axis

-0.5

-1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis
 Cont’d

 Step-3: Determine the asymptotes of the root loci.

Asymptote is the straight line approximation of a curve

Actual Curve
Asymptotic Approximation
 Cont’d

 180(2k  1)
Angle of asymptotes   
nm
where
 n-----> number of poles
 m-----> number of zeros
 For this Transfer Function G ( s) H ( s)  K
s ( s  1)( s  2)

 180(2k  1)

30
 Cont’d
  60 when k  0
 180 when k  1
 300 when k  2
 420 when k  3

 Since the angle repeats itself as k is varied, the distinct angles for the
asymptotes are determined as 60°, –60°, -180°and 180°.
 Thus, there are three asymptotes having angles 60°, –60°, 180°.
 Cont’d

 Before we can draw these asymptotes in the complex plane, we must find
the point where they intersect the real axis.

 Point of intersection of asymptotes on real axis (or centroid of

asymptotes) can be find as out

 poles   zeros

nm
 Cont’d

K
 For G ( s) H ( s) 
s ( s  1)( s  2)

(0  1  2)  0

30

3
  1
3
 Cont’d

Pole-Zero Map
1

  60 ,60 , 180 0.5

180 60

Imaginary Axis
  1 0   60

-0.5

-1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis
Home Work
 Consider following unity feedback system.

 Determine
 Root loci on real axis
 Angle of asymptotes
 Centroid of asymptotes
Step-4: Determine the breakaway point.

Pole-Zero Map
1
 The breakaway point corresponds to a
point in the s plane where multiple
0.5
roots of the characteristic equation
occur.

Imaginary Axis
0

 It is the point from which the root

-0.5
locus branches leaves real axis and
enter in complex plane.
-1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis
 Cont’d

Pole-Zero Map
1
 The break-in point corresponds to a
point in the s plane where multiple
0.5
roots of the characteristic equation
occur.

Imaginary Axis
0

 It is the point where the root locus -0.5

branches arrives at real axis.
-1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis
 Cont’d

• The breakaway or break-in points can be determined from the roots of

dK
0
ds
• It should be noted that not all the solutions of dK/ds=0 correspond to actual
breakaway points.

• If a point at which dK/ds=0 is on a root locus, it is an actual breakaway or break-in

point.

• Stated differently, if at a point at which dK/ds=0 the value of K takes a real positive
value, then that point is an actual breakaway or break-in point.
 Cont’d
K
G( s) H ( s) 
s ( s  1)( s  2)
 The characteristic equation of the system is
K
1  G( s) H (s)  1  0
s ( s  1)( s  2)
K
 1
s( s  1)( s  2)

K   s( s  1)( s  2)

 The breakaway point can now be determined as

dK d
   s ( s  1)( s  2)
ds ds
 Cont’d
dK d
   s( s  1)( s  2)
ds ds
dK
ds

d 3
ds

s  3s 2  2 s 
dK
 3s 2  6 s  2
ds
 Set dK/ds=0 in order to determine breakaway point.
 3s 2  6 s  2  0
3s 2  6 s  2  0

s  0.4226
 1.5774
 Cont’d
s  0.4226
 1.5774
 Since the breakaway point must lie on a root locus between 0 and –1, it is clear that
s=–0.4226 corresponds to the actual breakaway point.

 Point s=–1.5774 is not on the root locus. Hence, this point is not an actual breakaway
or break-in point.

 In fact, evaluation of the values of K corresponding to s=–0.4226 and s=–1.5774 yields

 Cont’d

Pole-Zero Map
1

0.5

180 60

Imaginary Axis
s  0.4226 0   60

-0.5

-1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis
 Cont’d
Pole-Zero Map
1

0.5

s  0.4226

Imaginary Axis
0

-0.5

-1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Home Work

 Determine the Breakaway and break in points

 Solution

K ( s 2  8s  15) ( s 2  3s  2)
 1 K  2
s  3s  2
2
( s  8s  15)

 Differentiating K with respect to s and setting the derivative equal to zero yields;
dK [( s 2  8s  15)( 2s  3)  ( s 2  3s  2)( 2 s  8)]
 0
ds ( s  8s  15)
2 2

11s 2  26s  61  0
 Hence, solving for s, we find the break-away and break-in points;
s = -1.45 and 3.82
Step-5: Determine the points where root loci cross the imaginary axis.

Pole-Zero Map
1

0.5

180 60
Imaginary Axis

0   60

-0.5

-1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis
 Cont’d
 Let s=jω in the characteristic equation, equate both the real part and the imaginary
part to zero, and then solve for ω and K.

 For present system the characteristic equation is

s 3  3s 2  2s  K  0

( j ) 3  3( j ) 2  2 j  K  0

( K  3 2 )  j (2   3 )  0
 Cont’d
( K  3 2 )  j (2   3 )  0

 Equating both real and imaginary parts of this equation to zero

(2   3 )  0

( K  3 2 )  0

 Which yields
Cont’d
 Root Locus
5

4
Cont’d
3

1
Imaginary Axis

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis
Example #1

 Consider following unity feedback system.

 Determine the value of K such that the damping ratio of a pair of dominant
complex-conjugate closed-loop poles is 0.5.
K
G ( s) H ( s) 
s ( s  1)( s  2)
 Cont’d

 The damping ratio of 0.5 corresponds to

  cos 

  cos 1 

  cos 1 (0.5)  60

 Cont’d

?
 Cont’d

 The value of K that yields such poles is found from the magnitude
condition

K
1
s ( s  1)( s  2) s  0.3337 j 0.5780
Cont’d
 Cont’d
 The third closed loop pole at K=1.0383 can be obtained as

K
1  G ( s) H ( s)  1  0
s ( s  1)( s  2)

1.0383
1 0
s ( s  1)( s  2)

s ( s  1)( s  2)  1.0383  0
Cont’d
Home Work
 Consider following unity feedback system.

 Determine the value of K such that the natural undamped frequency of

dominant complex-conjugate closed-loop poles is 1 rad/sec.
K
G ( s) H ( s) 
s ( s  1)( s  2)
 Root Locus

2 Cont’d
1.5 -0.2+j0.96

0.5
Imaginary Axis

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

Real Axis
Example #2

 Sketch the root locus of following system and determine the location of dominant
closed loop poles to yield maximum overshoot in the step response less than 30%.
 Cont’d

Pole-Zero Map
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
 Step-1: Pole-Zero Map

Imaginary Axis
0

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
Real Axis
 Cont’d

Pole-Zero Map
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

Imaginary Axis
 Step-2: Root Loci on Real axis 0

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
Real Axis
 Cont’d

Pole-Zero Map
1

0.8

  90 0.6

0.4
 Step-3: Asymptotes
  2 0.2

Imaginary Axis
0

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
Real Axis
 Cont’d

Pole-Zero Map
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

Imaginary Axis
 Step-4: breakaway point 0
-1.55
-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
Real Axis
 Cont’d
Root Locus
8

2
Imaginary Axis

-2

-4

-6

-8
-4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5
Real Axis
 Cont’d

 Mp<30% corresponds to



1 2
Mp e  100



1 2
30%  e  100

  0.35
 Cont’d
Root Locus
8

6
6 0.35

2
Imaginary Axis

-2

-4

-6 0.35
6

-8
-4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5
Real Axis
 Cont’d
Root Locus
8

6
6 0.35

System: sys
4
Gain: 28.9
Pole: -1.96 + 5.19i
2 Damping: 0.354
Overshoot (%): 30.5
Imaginary Axis

Frequency (rad/sec): 5.55

0

-2

-4

-6 0.35
6

-8
-4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5
Real Axis
Root Locus of 1st Order System without a zero
 1st order systems (without zero) are represented by following transfer function.

K
G ( s) H ( s) 
s 
 Root locus of such systems is a horizontal line starting from -α and moves towards
-∞ as K reaches infinity.
jω

-∞ σ
-α
Home Work

 Draw the Root Locus of the following systems.

K
1) G ( s) H ( s) 
s2

K
2) G ( s) H ( s) 
s 1

K
3) G (s) H ( s) 
s
Root Locus of 1st Order System with a zero
 1st order systems with zero are represented by following transfer function.
K (s   )
G (s) H ( s) 
s 
 Root locus of such systems is a horizontal line starting from -α and moves towards -β as K reaches
infinity.
jω

σ
-β -α
Home Work

 Draw the Root Locus of the following systems.

Ks
1) G ( s) H ( s) 
s2

2) G ( s ) H ( s )  K ( s  5)
s 1

3) G ( s ) H ( s )  K ( s  3)
s
Root Locus of 2nd Order System without a zero
 Second order systems (without zeros) have two poles and the transfer function is given

K
G ( s) H ( s) 
( s  1 )( s   2 )
 Root loci of such systems are vertical lines.

jω

σ
-α2 -α1
Home Work
 Draw the Root Locus of the following systems.

K K
1) G ( s ) H ( s )  4) G ( s) H ( s)  2
s ( s  2) s  3s  10

K
2) G (s) H ( s)  2
s

K
3) G ( s ) H ( s ) 
( s  1)( s  3)
Root Locus of 2nd Order System with a zero
 Second order systems (with one zero) have two poles and the transfer function is given

K (s   )
G (s) H (s) 
( s  1 )( s   2 )
 Root loci of such systems are either horizontal lines or circular depending upon pole-
zero configuration.
jω jω jω

σ σ σ
-α2 -β -α1 -β -α2 -α1 -α2 -α1 -β
Home Work

 Draw the Root Locus of the following systems.

K ( s  1)
1) G ( s ) H ( s ) 
s ( s  2)

2) G ( s ) H ( s )  K ( s  2)
2
s

K ( s  5)
3) G ( s ) H ( s ) 
( s  1)( s  3)
Example
 Sketch the root-locus plot of following system with complex-conjugate open loop poles.
 Cont’d

 Step-1: Pole-Zero

 Step-2: Determine the root loci on real axis

 Step-3: Asymptotes
 Cont’d

 Step-4: Determine the angle of departure from the complex-conjugate open-

loop poles.

 The presence of a pair of complex-conjugate open-loop poles requires the determination of the
angle of departure from these poles.

 Knowledge of this angle is important, since the root locus near a complex pole yields information
as to whether the locus originating from the complex pole migrates toward the real axis or extends
toward the asymptote.
 Cont’d
 Step-4: Determine the angle of departure
from the complex-conjugate open-loop
poles.
 Cont’d

 Step-5: Break-in point

Cont’d
Root Locus of Higher Order System

 Third order System without zero

K
G ( s) H ( s) 
( s  1 )( s   2 )( s   3 )
 Cont’d

 Sketch the Root Loci of following unity feedback system

K ( s  3)
G ( s) H ( s) 
s ( s  1)( s  2)( s  4)
 Cont’d
 Let us begin by calculating the asymptotes. The real-axis intercept is evaluated
as;

 The angles of the lines that intersect at - 4/3, given by

 Cont’d

 The Figure shows the

complete root locus as
well as the asymptotes
that were just calculated.
Example: Sketch the root locus for the system with the
characteristic equation of;

a) Number of finite poles = n = 4.

b) Number of finite zeros = m = 1.
c) Number of asymptotes = n - m = 3.
d) Number of branches or loci equals to the number of finite poles (n) = 4.
e) The portion of the real-axis between, 0 and -2, and between, -4 and -∞, lie
on the root locus for K > 0.
• Using Eq. (v), the real-axis asymptotes intercept is evaluated as;

  ( −2 ) +2 ( − 4 ) −(−1) −10+1
σ 𝑎= = =−3
𝑛− 𝑚 4 −1
• The angles of the asymptotes that intersect at - 3, given by Eq. (vi), are;
  (2 𝑘 +1) π (2 𝑘 +1) π For K = 0, θa = 60o
θ 𝑎= = For K = 1, θa = 180o
𝑛 −𝑚 4−1 For K = 2, θa = 300o
 Cont’d
 The root-locus plot of the system is shown in the
figure below.
 It is noted that there are three asymptotes. Since n
– m = 3.
 The root loci must begin at the poles; two loci (or
branches) must leave the double pole at s = -4.
 Using Eq. (vii), the breakaway point, σ, can be
determine as;
 The solution of the above equation is 𝜎  =−2.59 .
Example: sketch the root loci for the system.

• A root locus exists on the real axis between points s = –1 and s = –3.6.
• The intersection of the asymptotes and the real axis is determined as,

  𝑎= 0+0+3.6 −1 2.6
σ = =− 1.3
𝑛 −𝑚 3 −1
• The angles of the asymptotes that intersect at – 1.3, given by Eq. (vi), are;

  (2 𝑘 +1) π (2 𝑘 +1) π For K = 0, θa = 90o

θ 𝑎= = For K = 1, θa = -90o or 270o
𝑛 −𝑚 3 −1

• Since the characteristic equation is

• We have (a)
 Cont’d
• The breakaway and break-in points are found from Eq. (a) as,

From which we get,

• Point s = 0 corresponds to the actual breakaway point. But points are neither breakaway nor
break-in points, because the corresponding gain values K become complex quantities.
 Cont’d
 • To check the points where root-locus branches may cross the
imaginary axis, substitute into the characteristic equation,
yielding.

•  Notice that this equation can be satisfied only if

• Because of the presence of a double pole at the origin, the root

locus is tangent to the axis at .

• The root-locus branches do not cross the axis.

• The root loci of this system is shown in the Figure.

Goal for next lectures

 Routh-Hurwitz stability criteria

 Frequency response analysis