Fundamentals of
College Algebra
11th ed.
Swokowski Cole
Chapter One
Fundamental Concepts of Algebra
Section 1.1
Real Numbers
Goals
Introduce types of real number;
Describe properties of operations with real
numbers;
Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication
Division
Real Numbers
Goals (cont’d)
Introduce the coordinate line…
…together with positive and negative numbers;
Discuss inequalities, including ideas of
Absolute value;
Distance;
Scientific form for real numbers, including…
significant figures;
Types of Real Number
Positive integers, or natural numbers:
1, 2, 3, 4, ...
Whole numbers, or nonnegative integers:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
Integers:
..., 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
Factors
If a , b, and c are integers with c ab ,
then a and b are factors, or divisors, of c .
For example, since
6 2 3 2 3 1 6 1 6 ,
the integers 1, -1, 2, -2, 3, -3, 6, and -6 are
factors of 6.
Prime Numbers
A positive integer p different from 1 is
prime if its only positive factors are 1 and
p.
The first few primes are
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, and 19.
Fundamental Theorem of
Arithmetic
Every positive integer different from 1 can
be expressed as a product of primes in one
and only one way (except for order of
factors)
Examples:
12 2 2 3, 126 2 3 3 7,
540 2 2 3 3 3 5.
Further Types of Real Number
A rational number is a real number that can
be expressed in the form a / b , where
a and b are integers and b 0 .
The decimal representations for rational
numbers are either
5
terminating, for example 1.25, or
4
nonterminating and repeating, for example
177
3.2181818...
55
Further Types (cont’d)
Real numbers that are not rational are
irrational numbers.
Examples:
, the ratio of the circumference of a circle to
its diameter; isroughly 3.14159.
2, the square root of 2 , roughly 1.414.
Irrationals always have nonterminating and
nonrepeating decimal representations.
Types of Number Used in Algebra
A line connecting two rectangles means that the numbers
named in the higher rectangle include those in the lower.
Properties of Addition and
Multiplication
Further Properties
Properties of Negatives
The following table shows how negatives work with
multiplication:
Reciprocals
The reciprocal of a nonzero real number a
is often denoted by a-1
Two examples:
1
1 3 1 4
1
2 ; .
2 4 3/ 4 3
a 1 .
1 1
If a 0, then a a
a
Subtraction and Division
These can be defined using addition and
multiplication:
About Division
We can denote a b by either a / b
a
or ;
b
Then we call a the numerator and b the
denominator.
a
is never defined if b 0 ; we do not
b
divide by zero!
Properties of Division
These
properties of
quotients are
all valid,
provided we
never divide
by zero.
Coordinate Line
We can represent the real number system
using points on a line; the origin O
corresponds to zero.
The positive real numbers are to the right of O ;
The negative real numbers are to the left.
Numbers and their Negatives
Don’t confuse negative real numbers with
the negative of a real number.
The negative of a real number can be
positive!
Here is the general pattern:
Inequalities
We can use positive and negative numbers
to define the ideas of greater than and less
than:
The symbols > and < are called inequality
signs.
Illustrations and Laws of Signs
Variations
Nonstrict inequalities are of two types:
We write a b to mean that a is greater than
or equal to b
We write a b to mean that a is less than or
equal to b
The continued inequality a b c means
that both a < b and b < c .
Two Examples
Ordering three real numbers:
Determining the sign of a real number:
Absolute Value
Definition:
Illustration using a = 4 :
Examples of Absolute Value
Note that a a every real number a .
for
Distance
We can use absolute value to define
distance along the coordinate line:
Illustration:
Examples of Distance
Scientific Form
Used to express very large and very small
numbers:
Some examples:
Significant Figures
Captures the accuracy of a numerical
value.
If in scientific form the number a is written
as a c 10 n
, where 1 c 10 and c is
rounded off to k decimal places, then we
say that a is accurate to k + 1 significant
figures (or digits).
Example
37.2638 rounded to…
5 significant figures is 3.7264 101 , or 37.264 ;
3 significant figures is 3.73 10 , or 37.3 ;
1
1 significant figure is 4 10 , or 40 .
1
Section 1.2
Exponents and Radicals
Goals
Introduce exponential notation, including…
Laws of exponents;
Negative exponents.
Introduce roots;
Give laws of radicals.
Introduce rational exponents.
Exponential notation
n
Definition of a for a positive integer n
(the exponent) and real number a (the base):
Examples
The Notation ca n
Note that 3an , for example, means 3(an) ,
not (3an) ;
Some other illustrations:
Nonpositive Exponents
Provided a is nonzero, we can also define
an when n is zero or negative:
Laws of Exponents
Here a and b are real numbers and m
and n are integers:
More Examples and a Theorem
Example
3 5
8x y
Here is how to simplify 1 2
:
4x y
Roots
Definition:
Illustration:
Terminology and Properties
We say that…
n a is a radical,
the number a is the radicand, and
n is the index of the radical.
More Properties
Note that Property (4), above, implies that
x x for every real number x .
2
Further laws of radicals:
Warning
The following chart illustrates two very
common mistakes; beware!
Examples
3
Here is how to simplify 320 :
Examples (cont’d)
3 8 4
Here is how to simplify 3
16 x y z :
Examples (cont’d)
2 5
Here is how to simplify 3a b 6 a b :
Rationalizing a Denominator
Means rewriting a fraction so that the
denominator contains no radicals.
Some special cases:
Examples
1
Rationalize the denominators of 5
x
and of 5
2
:
y
Rational Exponents
Definition and examples:
Further Examples
5 / 2
Here is how to simplify 27 4
2/3
:
Note that the same laws of exponents
apply to fractional exponents as well.
Examples (cont’d)
2
2 x 3x 5 / 6
2/3
Here is how to simplify 1/ 2 1/ 3 :
y y
Section 1.3
Algebraic Expressions
Goals
Introduce sets
Introduce algebraic expressions, including…
Three types of polynomial:
Monomials
Binomials
Trinomials
Other types of algebraic expression
Learn to factor polynomials
Sets
A set is a collection of objects of some type.
The objects are called the elements of the set.
We often denote the set of real numbers
by R , and the set of integers by .
We say two sets S and T are equal, and
write S = T , if S and T contain exactly the
same elements.
Further Notation and
Terminology
Two Ways to Describe Sets
Using a defining property:
For example, the notation x : x 3 means
the set of all real numbers x such that x > 3 .
Listing the elements of a finite set:
For example, the set T consisting of the first
five positive integers could be written
T 1,2,3,4,5 .
Algebraic Expressions
The result of applying
Additions,
Subtractions,
Multiplications,
Divisions,
Powers, or
Taking roots
to any collection of variables and/or real
numbers.
Examples
Special Types of Algebraic
Expression
If x is a variable, then a…
Monomial in x is an expression of the form axn ,
Binomial in x is a sum of two monomials,
Trinomial in x is a sum of three monomials, and a
Polynomial in x is a sum of any number of
monomials in x :
Terminology
Each expression akxk in the sum above is a
term of the polynomial.
The coefficient ak of the highest power of x
is called the leading coefficient of the
polynomial.
Examples
Operations with Polynomials
Adding and subtracting:
Subtracting (cont’d)
Multiplying Binomials
Example:
Multiplying Polynomials
An example solved two ways:
Multiplying (cont’d)
Polynomials With Two or
More Variables
A polynomial in two variables, say x and
y, is a finite sum of terms, each of the form
axmyk for some real number a and
nonnegative integers m and k.
An example is
3x4y + 2x3y5 + 7x2 - 4xy + 8y – 5.
Other polynomials may involve three or
more variables.
Example
Here we divide a polynomial by a
monomial:
Product Formulas
The products listed in this following chart
occur so frequently they deserve special
attention:
Examples
Examples (cont’d)
Factoring
Factoring is the process of expressing a sum
of terms as a product. For example, since
x2 – 9 = (x + 3)(x – 3), the polynomials x + 3
and x – 3 are factors of x2 – 9 .
A polynomial with coefficients in some set S
of numbers is irreducible over S if it cannot be
written as a product of two polynomials of
positive degree with coefficients in S.
Factoring (cont’d)
Thus, x2 – 2 is irreducible over the rational
numbers, since it cannot be written as a
product of two polynomials of positive
degree that have rational coefficients.
However, x2 – 2 is not irreducible over the
real numbers, since we can write
x2 – 9 = (x + 3)(x – 3).
Factoring (cont’d)
To factor a polynomial means to express it
as a product of irreducible polynomials.
The greatest common factor (gcf) of an
expression is the product of factors that
appear in each term, with each of the
factors raised to the smallest nonzero
exponent appearing in any term.
When factoring polynomials, first factor
out the gcf.
Example
Here are examples of factored
polynomials:
Factoring Formulas
The following formulas are very useful for
factoring polynomials:
Examples
Difference of two squares:
Examples (cont’d)
Examples (cont’d)
Sum and difference of two cubes:
Examples (cont’d)
Factoring by Grouping
If a sum contains four or more terms, it
may be possible to group the terms in a
suitable manner and then find a
factorization by using distributive
properties.
Examples:
Example (cont’d)
Example (cont’d)
Example (cont’d)
Section 1.4
Fractional Expressions
Goals
Introduce fractional expressions, including…
Rational expressions.
Learn to simplify rational expressions by…
Canceling common factors;
Rationalizing a numerator or denominator.
Learn to add, subtract, multiply, and divide
fractional expressions.
Fractional and Rational
Expressions
A fractional expression is a quotient of two
algebraic expressions.
A rational expression is a quotient p/q of
two polynomials p and q .
Thus, every rational expression is a
fractional expression, but not vice versa.
Domain and Examples
The domain of a rational expression p/q
consists of all real numbers except those
that make the denominator zero…
…since division by zero is never allowed!
Examples:
Canceling and Lowest Terms
A common nonzero factor in the
numerator and denominator of a quotient
may be canceled.
This is based on a property of quotients:
Examples of canceling:
Simplifying
A rational expression is simplified, or
reduced to lowest terms, if the numerator
and denominator have …
No common polynomial factors of positive
degree, and…
No common integral factors greater than 1 .
To simplify a rational expression, we…
Factor both the numerator and denominator into
prime factors, and
Cancel common factors.
Examples of Simplifying
Products and Quotients of
Rational Expressions
Rational expressions are multiplied and
divided just as ordinary fractions are.
Two examples:
Solution for Example (a)
Solution for Example (b)
Adding and Subtracting
Rational Expressions
Find a common denominator and use a
property of quotients:
Often best to use the least common
denominator (lcd) of the two quotients:
Factor each denominator into primes, then…
Form the product of the different prime factors,
using the largest exponent that appears with
each prime factor.
Numerical Example
To illustrate the use of the lcd, we express
7 5
as a simplified rational number:
24 18
Solution (cont’d)
Solution (cont’d)
First Algebraic Example
Solution (cont’d)
Second Algebraic Example
Solution (cont’d)
Complex Fractions
A complex fraction is a “fraction within a
fraction”; here is an example:
Example (cont’d)
Rationalizing the Denominator
Given a fraction whose denominator is of the
form a b or a b , for example, we
sometimes want to rewrite the fraction with
no square roots in the denominator.
This is called rationalizing the denominator of
the given fractional expression.
It often allows the fraction to be simplified.
Rationalizing (cont’d)
To rationalize the denominator, multiply
both numerator and denominator of the
fraction by the conjugate of the
denominator.
The conjugate of a b is a b ;
the conjugate of a b is a b.
Example
1
Rationalize the denominator of :
x y
Note that we can also rationalize
numerators in the same way!
A More Complicated Example
Example (cont’d)
Note that the simplified form makes it
much easier to tell the values of x for
which the given expression equals zero.
