MOHAMED SATHAK A.J.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CSE
HEARTY WELCOME TO I SEMESTER
UNIT – I PROPERTIES OF MATTER
 Elasticity
 Stress-strain diagram and its uses
 Factors affecting elastic modulus and tensile strength
 Torsional stress and deformations
 Twisting couple
 Torsion pendulum: theory and experiment
 Bending of beams
 Bending moment
 Cantilever: theory and experiment
 Uniform and non-uniform bending: theory and experiment
 I-shaped girders
 Stress due to bending in beams.

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UNIT II - WAVES AND FIBER OPTICS

 Waves:
 Oscillatory motion
 Forced and damped oscillations: differential equation and its solution
 Plane progressive waves – wave equation.
 Lasers :
 Population of energy levels, Einstein’s A and B coefficients derivation –
 Resonant cavity, optical amplification (qualitative)
 Semiconductor lasers: homojunction and heterojunction
 Fiber optics:
 Principle, numerical aperture and acceptance angle
 Types of optical fibres (material, refractive index, mode) –
 Losses associated with optical fibres –
 Fibre optic sensors: pressure and displacement.

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UNIT 3 - THERMAL PHYSICS

 Transfer of heat energy

 Thermal expansion of solids and liquids
 Expansion joints
 Bimetallic strips
 Thermal conduction, convection and radiation
 Heat conductions in solids
 Thermal conductivity
 Forbe’s and Lee’s disc method: theory and experiment
 Conduction through compound media (series and parallel)
 Thermal insulation
 Applications: heat exchangers, refrigerators, ovens and solar water heaters.

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UNIT 4 - QUANTUM PHYSICS

 Black body radiation

 Planck’s theory (derivation)
 Compton effect: theory and experimental verification
 Wave particle duality
 Electron diffraction
 Concept of wave function and its physical significance
 Schrödinger’s wave equation - time independent and time dependent equations
 Particle in a one-dimensional rigid box tunnelling (qualitative)
 Scanning tunnelling microscope.

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UNIT 5 - CRYSTAL PHYSICS

 Single crystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous materials

 Unit cell, crystal systems, Bravais lattices
 Directions and planes in a crystal
 Miller indices – inter-planar distances
 Coordination number and packing factor for SC, BCC, FCC, HCP and diamond structures
 Crystal imperfections: point defects, line defects
 Burger vectors, stacking faults
 Role of imperfections in plastic deformation
 Growth of single crystals: solution and melt growth techniques.

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 UNIT – I PROPERTIES OF MATTER

 Elasticity is the property by which a body resists change in its size or shape when an
external force is acting on it and returns to the original state after the removal of the
deforming force.
 Classification Of Elastic Materials

 Perfectly Elastic: Materials which recover their original state after the removal of the
deforming force
 Plastic: Materials which do not recover their original state even after the removal of
deforming force
 Perfectly rigid material: A material which does not undergo any relative displacement
of its parts when an external force acts on it, however large it may be.
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 Fundamental Definitions
 Restoring Force
When an external force acts on a body to cause deformation, forces of reaction comes into
play internally and tends to restore the body to its original condition. These internal forces are
called restoring forces.
 Stress
Stress = Restoring force = F Stress is expressed in Nm-2 or Pascal.
Area A
TYPES OF STRESS
1. Normal stress: When the force is applied perpendicular to the surface of the body, then the
stress applied is Normal Stress.
2. Tangential Stress: When the force is applied along the surface of the body, then the stress
applied is called as tangential stress. The tangential stress is also called as Shearing Stress.
 Strain
The ratio of the change in dimension produced by an external force to its original dimension is
known as strain. The nature of the strain depends on the nature of the deforming forces.
Strain has no unit and dimension. 8
 Types of Strain:
 The ratio of change in length per unit length is known as linear strain or
longitudinal strain. It is created by longitudinal stress.
 When equal and opposite forces act tangentially along two opposite faces of a
cube, a change in shape is produced. Such a strain is called shearing strain.
 When an equal inward or outward force is applied normal to each face of a cube,
a change in volume is produced. The ratio of the change in volume per unit
volume is known as volume strain.
 Hooke’s law states that within the elastic limit, the ratio of the stress to the strain is
constant. This constant is called the modulus of elasticity of the material.
 Types of Moduli of Elasticity
Stress α strain
Young’ modulus (Y)
Stress = a constant x Strain
Bulk modulus (K)
Rigidity modulus (n)

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Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (Y)

It is the ratio of longitudinal (tensile) stress to longitudinal strain. It is denoted by Y.

Young’s modulus Y = Longitudinal or linear stress
Longitudinal or linear strain
Consider a wire of length L and area of cross section A. One end of it is
fixed while the other end is loaded as shown in Figure Let l be the
extension produced in the wire for the given load.
Longitudinal stress = F/A Nm–2
Longitudinal Strain = l/ L
Young’s modulus of elasticity
Y = F / A = FL Nm–2 or Pascal
l/L Al

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Bulk Modulus (K)
Suppose equal forces act perpendicular to the six faces
of a cube of volume V as shown in fig. Due to the action
of these forces, let the decrease in volume be dV.
Now, Bulk stress = Force/Area = F/ A
Bulk Strain = change in volume / original volume
Bulk Strain = -dV/V (The negative sign indicates that
volume decreases.)
Bulk modulus of the material of the object is defined as
the ratio of bulk stress to bulk strain.
It is denoted by k
Bulk modulus = Bulk stress / Bulk strain
K = -PV/dV Nm–2 or Pascal

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Rigidity Modulus (n)
Consider a solid cube ABCDEFGH whose lower face EFGH is fixed. A
tangential force F is applied on the upper face ABCD . Due to the
application of the force, an equal and opposite force comes into play on
the lower fixed face EFGH. These two forces form a couple, which makes
the layers parallel to the two faces to move one over the other. Thus, the
point A shifts to A¢, B to B¢, C to C¢ and D to D¢ (Figure).
The line joining the two faces turn through an angle q. The face ABCD is
said to be sheared through an angle q.
The shearing stress is the tangential force per unit area of the face ABCD.
Rigidity modulus n = Shearing stress / Shearing strain
Shearing stress = F/A Nm–2
Shearing strain = tan q = l/L
As q is very small, tan q can be written as q.
Shearing strain = q = l/L
Rigidity modulus of elasticity n = F / A = F Nm–2 or Pascal
q Aq 12
POISSONS RATIO (σ):
It is defined as the ratio between the lateral strain per unit stress (β) to the longitudinal
strain per unit stress (α), within the elastic limits.

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Stress-Strain Diagram
Consider a body subjected to a uniformly increasing
stress which results in a change in its dimension. The
elastic behavior of a material is studied from the graph
plotted between different stresses applied to the material
and the corresponding strain produced in it. This graph,
as shown in Figure, is called stress-strain curve.
Stress strain curve has different regions and points. These
regions and points are:
(i) Proportional limit
(ii) Elastic limit
(iii) Yield point
(iv) Ultimate stress point
(v) Fracture or breaking point.
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Proportional Limit: It is the region in the strain curve which obeys Hooke’s law i.e. within
elastic limit the stress is directly proportional to the strain produced in the material. In this
limit the ratio of stress with strain gives us proportionality constant known as young’s
modulus. The point OA in the graph is called the proportional limit.
 
Elastic Limit: It is the point in the graph up to which the material returns to its original
position when the load acting on it is completely removed. Beyond this limit the material
cannot return to its original position and a plastic deformation starts to appear in it. The
point A is the Elastic limit in the graph.

Yield Point or Yield Stress Point: Yield point in a stress strain diagram is defined as the point
at which the material starts to deform plastically. After the yield point is passed there is
permanent deformation develops in the material and which is not reversible. There are two
yield points and it is upper yield point and lower yield point. The stress corresponding to the
yield point is called yield point stress. The point B is the upper yield stress point and C is the
lower yield stress point.
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Ultimate Stress Point: It is the point corresponding to the maximum stress that a
material can handle before failure. It is the maximum strength point of the material that
can handle the maximum load. Beyond this point the failure takes place. Point D in the
graph is the ultimate stress point.
Fracture or Breaking Point: It is the point in the stress strain curve at which the failure of
the material takes place. The fracture or breaking of material takes place at this point. The
point E is the breaking point in the graph.
Uses of stress –strain diagram
1. It is used to measure the elastic strength yield strength and tensile strength of metals
2. It is used to estimate the working stress and safety factor of an engineering
material.
3. This diagram is also used to identify the ductile and brittle materials.
The area under the curve in the elastic region gives the energy required to deform it
elastically. The area under the curve up to Ultimate Tensile strength(UTS) gives the
energy required to deform it plastically.
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Factors Affecting Elasticity
The following are some of the important factors which affect the elastic properties of solids.

•Stress: The action of large constant stress or the repeated number of cycles of stresses
acting on a body affect the elasticity of the body gradually. Considering this fact, the working
stress on an engineering material is kept well below its ultimate tensile strength.

•Temperature: The elasticity of material decreases with the increase of temperature. A

carbon filament which is highly elastic at normal temperatures becomes plastic when it is at
high temperatures. Lead is not a good elastic material but at low temperatures it becomes a
very good elastic material. Creep resistance is a property by which the material can
withstand its elastic property without fracture at high temperatures and during quick
loading. Dispersion hardened materials and coarse hardened materials have better creep
resistance at high temperature. Hence they can withstand their elastic properties even at
high temperatures.
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•Impurities: The elastic property of a material may increase or decrease due to the addition
of impurities. If we add carbon in minute quantities to molten iron, the elastic properties of
iron are increased enormously. But when the carbon content is more than 1% in iron, then
the strength of iron decreases. Similarly, the addition of potassium in gold increases the
elastic properties of gold.
If any addition of impurity atoms distorts the lattice structure of the base metal, then the
elastic property of the base metal decreases. This kind of impurity atoms generally have
different atomic radii and electronic structures from those of the base metal atoms and
therefore act as centres of distortion which decrease the elastic properties of the base metal.

•Crystalline nature: For a given metal, the modulus of elasticity is more when it is in single
crystal form. But in the polycrystalline state, its modulus of elasticity is comparatively small,
while its mechanical properties like ductility, malleability, machinability, etc., increase. Hence,
polycrystalline form of metals is used in most of the engineering works.

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• Heat treatment and metal processing: A grain of elastic material consists of many small
interlocking crystals. Various heat treatment processes are adopted to get the desired
physical and mechanical properties through the changes in micro constituents of the
material. Annealing (heating and then slow cooling) is adopted to increase softness and
ductility in the materials. But it decreases the tensile strength and yield point of the
material due to formation of large crystal grains.

Hammering and rolling are metal processing techniques to make thin plates and sheets.
They break the grains into fine grains and increase its elastic properties. Metals with fine
grains are stronger than metals with large or coarse grains. However for high temperature
applications, materials with large grains are used since they have high creep resistance.

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• BENDING OF BEAMS:
Beam: A beam is defined as a rod or bar. Circular or rectangular of uniform cross section
whose length is very much greater than its other dimensions, such as breadth and
thickness. It is commonly used in the construction of bridges to support roofs of the
buildings etc. Since the length of the beam is much greater than its other dimensions the
shearing stresses are very small.
Bending of a Beam and neutral axis

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EXPRESSION FOR BENDING MOMENT
Let PQ be the chosen from the neutral axis. If R is the
radius of curvature of the neutral axis and θ is the angle
subtended by it at its center of curvature ’C’
Then we can write original length
PQ=Rθ ………………………………………………………. 1
Let us consider a filament P’Q’ at a distance ‘X’ from the
neutral axis.
We can write extended length
P’Q’=(R+x) θ ………………………………………………2
From equations 1 and 2 we have,
Increase in length=P’Q’-PQ
Or increase in its length=(R+x)θ-Rθ
Increase in length=xθ …………………………………….3
We know linear strain=increase in length/original length
Linear strain = xθ/Rθ = x/R ………………………………4 21
EXPRESSION FOR BENDING MOMENT
We know, the young’s modulus of the material
Y= linear stress/linear strain (or)
Stress = Y x linear strain …………………….5
Substituting 4 in 5, we have
Stress=Yx/R
If δA is the area of cross section of the filament P’Q’, then,
The tensile force on the area δA=stress*Area
Ie. Tensile force=(Yx/R).δA
We know the moment of force= force*Perpendicular distance
Moment of the tensile force about the neutral axis AB (or)

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EXPRESSION FOR BENDING MOMENT
The moment of force acting on both the upper and lower halves of the neutral axis can be
got by summing all the moments of tensile and compressive forces about the neutral axis

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SPECIAL CASES
a)          Rectangular Cross section
If ‘b’ is the breadth and ‘d’ is the thickness of the beam, then

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SPECIAL CASES
b) Circular Cross Section

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CANTILEVER: A cantilever is a beam fixed horizontally at one end loaded to the other
end.
THEORY:
Let us consider a beam fixed at one end and loaded at its
other end as shown in the figure.
Due to load applied at the free end, a couple is created
between the two forces
a. Force (load ‘W’) applied at the free end towards
downward direction and
b. Reaction(R) acting in the upward direction at the
supporting end
The external bending couple tends to bend in the clockwise direction. But since one end of
the beam is fixed, the beam cannot rotate. Therefore external bending couple must be
balanced by another equal and opposite couple, created due to elastic nature of the body
i.e. called as internal beading moment.
Under equilibrium condition
External bending moment = Internal bending Moment 26
DEPRESSION OF A CANTILEVER – LOADED AT ITS END:

LET ‘I’ be the length of the cantilever OA fixed at ‘O’. Let

‘W’ be the weight suspended (loaded) at the free end
of the cantilever. Due to the load applied the cantilever
moves to a new position OA’ as shown in this figure.

Let us consider an element PQ of the beam of length dx,

at a distance OP=x from the fixed end. Let ‘C’ be the
center of curvature of the element PQ and let ‘R’ be the
radius of the curvature.

Due to the load applied at the free end of the Cantilever,

an external couple is formed. (Distance between the
two equal and opposite forces) is (l-x).

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We know under equilibrium
External bending moment = Internal bending Moment
Therefore, we can write Eqn. 1 = Eqn. 2

Two tangents are drawn at points P and Q, which meet the vertical line AA’ at T and S
respectively
Let the smallest depression produced from T to S = dy and
Let the angle between the two tangents = dƟ
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Then we can write

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Total depression at the end of the cantilever can be derived by integrating the equation 7
within the limits ‘0’ to ‘1’.

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SPECIAL CASES:
a. RECTANGULAR CROSS SECTION
If ‘b’ is the breadth and ‘d’ is the thickness of the beam then we know
Substituting the value of Ig in equation 8 we can write
The depression produced at the free end for a rectangular cross section

b. CIRCULAR CROSS SECTION

If ‘r’ is the radius of the circular cross section, then

Substituting the value of Ig in equation 8 we can write

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EXPERIMENTAL METHOD:

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EXPERIMENTAL METHOD: (Uniform Bending method)

Ig = bd3/12

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EXPERIMENTAL METHOD: (Non Uniform Bending method)

Ig = bd3/12

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Non Uniform Bending method:
The beam may be considered as two cantilevers, whose free end carries a load of W/2 and
fixed at the point ‘D’.
Hence we can say the elevation of A above D as the depression below ‘A’. We know the
depression of a cantilever

Therefore substituting the value l and l/2 and was W/2 in the expression for the depression of
the cantilever we have

Ig = bd3/12

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Uniform Bending method:

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Uniform Bending method:

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Uniform Bending method:

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Uniform Bending method:

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TWISTING COUPLE ON A WIRE:
Consider a cylindrical wire of length l and radius r fixed
at one end. It is twisted through an angle θ by applying
couple to its lower end. Now, the wire is said to be under
torsion.
Due to elastic property of the wire, an internal restoring
couple is set up inside the wire. It is equal and opposite
to the external twisting couple (applied). The cylinder is
imagined to consist of a large number of thin hollow
coaxial cylinders. Consider one such cylinder of radius x
Shearing strain or Angle of shear = Φ
and thickness dx. AB is a line parallel to PQ on the
Angle of twist at the free end = θ
surface of this cylinder. As the cylinder is twisted, the
From the figure
line AB is shifted to AC through an angle BAC = Φ BC = xθ = lΦ
Φ = xθ/ l

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TWISTING COUPLE ON A WIRE:

Rigidity modulus n = Sℎearing stress / Sℎearing strain

∴ Sℎearing stress = n × Sℎearing strain = nxθ/ l
Sℎearing stress = Sℎearing force / Area over wℎicℎ the force acts
Area over wℎicℎ tℎe force acts = ᴨ(x + dx)2 − ᴨ x2
= ᴨ (x2 + 2xdx + dx2 − ᴨ x2)
= ᴨ x2 + 2 ᴨ xdx + ᴨ dx2 − ᴨ x2
(dx2 term is neglected since it is very small)
= 2 ᴨ xdx
Hence, Sℎearing force F = {nxθ/l} . 2 ᴨ xdx
= 2πnθx2dx / l
∴ Moment of tℎis force about tℎe axis PQ of tℎe cylinder.
= Force × perpendicular distance
= 2πnθx2xdx / l
= 2πnθx3dx / l
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TWISTING COUPLE ON A WIRE:

The moment of the force acting on the entire cylinder of radius r is obtained by
integrating the expression (3) between the limits x =0 and x = r.

In the above expression if θ=1 radian, then we get, Twisting couple per unit twist
‘C’=

This twisting couple required to produce a twist of unit radian in the cylinder is
called the torsional rigidity or modulus of torsion for the material of the cylinder.

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Torsion Pendulum:

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Torsion Pendulum:
A body suspended by a thread or wire which twists first in one
direction and then in the reverse direction, in the horizontal
plane is called a torsional pendulum. The first torsion
pendulum was developed by Robert Leslie in 1793.
The period of oscillation of torsion pendulum is given as,

Where I=moment of inertia of the suspended body;

C=couple/unit twist. But we have an expression for couple per
unit twist C as,

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Torsion Pendulum:
Where l =length of the suspension wire; r=radius of the wire; n=rigidity modulus of the
suspension wire
Substituting (2) in (1) and squaring, we get an expression for rigidity modulus for the
suspension wire as,

We can use the above formula directly if we calculate the moment of inertia of the disc, I as
(1/2)MR2.

Now, let I0 be the moment of inertia of the disc alone and I1 & I2 be the moment of inertia of
the disc with identical masses at distances d1&d2 respectively. If I1 is the moment of inertia
of each identical mass about the vertical axis passing through its center of gravity, then

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Torsion Pendulum:

But from equation (1) 

Where T0,T1,T2 are the periods of torsional oscillation without identical mass, with
identical pass at position d1,d2 respectively. Dividing equation (6) by (9) and using (5),

Therefore, the moment of inertia of the disc,

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Torsion Pendulum:

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 Advantages of I-shaped Girders
They have very small depression even for a large dynamical load.
There is a good amount of material saving with no loss in its strength.
Therefore, they are cheaper than the solid girders.

Applications of I-shaped Girders

They are used in the construction of bridges over the rivers.
They are employed in railway tracks.
They are used in the construction of buildings and dams.

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