EE8215 High Voltage Engineering

(Program Elective)
B.E. / VII Semester / EEE

Prem Prakash

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra
Ranchi-835215
 Module – II

Conduction and Breakdown in Gases

 GASES AS INSULATING MEDIA

The simplest and the most commonly found

dielectrics are gases.

Most of the electrical apparatus use air as the

insulating medium, and in a few cases other gases
such as nitrogen (N2, carbon dioxide (CO2, Freon
(CCl2F2) and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) are also
used.
 Phenomena in gaseous dielectrics when a voltage is applied

When the applied voltage is low, small currents flow between

the electrodes and the insulation retains its electrical properties.

If the applied voltages are large, the current flowing through the
insulation increases very sharply, and an electrical breakdown
occurs.

A strongly conducting spark formed during breakdown practically

produces a short circuit between the electrodes.
Breakdown Voltage:
The maximum voltage applied to the
insulation at the moment of breakdown is called
the breakdown voltage.

In order to understand the breakdown phenomenon in

gases, a study of the electrical properties of gases and
the processes by which high currents are produced in
gases is essential.
Electrical discharges in gases:

1. Non-sustaining discharges, and

2. Self-sustaining types.

The breakdown in a gas, called spark breakdown is the

transition of a non-sustaining discharge into a self-
sustaining discharge.

The build-up of high currents in a breakdown is due to the

process known as ionization in which electrons and ions are
created from neutral atoms or molecules, and their
migration to the anode and cathode respectively leads to
high currents.
 Breakdown in Gases

A gas in its normal state is almost a perfect insulator.

However, when a high voltage is applied between the two

electrodes immersed in a gaseous medium, the gas becomes a
conductor and an electrical breakdown occurs.

The processes that are primarily responsible for the breakdown

of a gas are ionization by collision, photoionization, and the
secondary ionization processes. In insulating gases (also called
electron-attaching gases) the process of attachment also plays an
important role.
 IONIZATION

The process of liberating an electron from a gas

molecule with the simultaneous production of a
positive ion is called ionization.

The various physical conditions of gases, namely,

pressure, temperature, electrode field configuration,
nature of electrode surfaces, and the availability of
initial conducting particles are known to govern the
ionization processes.
IONIZATION PROCESSES

 Ionization by collision,

 Photoionization, and

 Secondary ionization processes

 process of attachment (in electron-attaching gases)

Ionization by collision

In the process of ionization by collision, a free electron collides

with a neutral gas molecule and gives rise to a new electron and
a positive ion.
Collision Processes

An electrical discharge is normally created from unionised gas by

collision processes.
These processes are mainly gas processes which occur due to the
collision between the charged particles and gas atoms or molecules.

Types of Collision

(a) Elastic Collisions:

(b) Inelastic Collisions:
(a) Elastic Collisions:

Elastic collisions are collisions which when occur, no change takes

place in the internal energy of the particles but only their kinetic energy gets
redistributed. These collisions do not occur in practice. When electrons
collide with gas molecules, a single electron traces a zig-zag path during its
travel. But in between the collisions it is accelerated by the electric field.
Since electrons are very light in weight, they transfer only a part of their
kinetic energy to the much heavier ions or gas molecules with which they
collide. This results in very little loss of energy by the electrons and therefore,
electrons gain very high energies and travel at a much higher speed than the
ions. Therefore in all electrical discharges electrons play a leading role.
b) Inelastic Collisions:

Inelastic collisions, on the other hand, are those in which internal changes in
energy take place within an atom or a molecule at the expense of the total kinetic
energy of the colliding particle. The collision often results in a change in the
structure of the atom. Thus, all collisions that occur in practice are inelastic
collisions. For example ionisation, attachment, excitation, recombination are
inelastic collisions.
Ionization by collision process
If we consider a low pressure gas column in which an electric field£ is applied
across two plane parallel electrodes, as shown in Fig. then, any electron
starting at the cathode will be accelerated more and more between collisions
with other gas molecules during its travel towards the anode. If the energy (e)
gained during this travel between collisions exceeds the ionization potential,
Vi , which is the energy required to dislodge an electron from its atomic shell,
then ionization takes place. This process can be represented as

where ,A is the atom, A + is the positive ion and e- is the electron.

A few of the electrons produced at the cathode by some external means, say
by ultra-violet light falling on the cathode, ionize neutral gas particles
producing positive ions and additional electrons. The additional electrons,
then, themselves make ‘ionizing collisions’ and thus the process repeats itself.
This represents an increase in the electron current, since the number of
electrons reaching the anode per unit time is greater than those liberated at
the cathode. In addition, the positive ions also reach the cathode and on
bombardment on the cathode give rise to secondary electrons.
Photoionization
The phenomena associated with ionization by radiation, or photo-ionization,
involves the interaction of radiation with matter.
Photo-ionization occurs when the amount of radiation energy absorbed by an
atom or molecule exceeds its ionization potential.

There are several processes by which radiation can be absorbed by atoms or

molecules.

(a) excitation of the atom to a higher energy state, and

(b) continuous absorption by direct excitation of the atom or dissociation of
diatomic molecule or direct ionization, etc.

Just as an excited atom emits radiation when the electron returns to the lower
state or to the ground state, the reverse process takes place when an atom
absorbs radiation. This reversible process can be expressed as
Ionization occurs when

where, h is the Planck’s constant, c is the velocity of light, λ is the wavelength of

the incident radiation and Vi is the ionization energy of the atom. Substituting
for h and c, we get

where Vi is in electron volts ( eV). The higher the ionization energy, the shorter
will be the wavelength of the radiation capable of causing ionization. It was
observed experimentally that a radiation having a wavelength of 1250 Å is
capable of causing photo-ionization of almost all gases.
Secondary Ionization Processes

Secondary ionization processes by which secondary electrons are

produced are the one which sustain a discharge after it is
established due to ionization by collision and photo-ionization.

a) Electron Emission due to Positive Ion Impact

b) Electron Emission due to Photons
c) Electron Emission due to Metastable and Neutral Atoms
(a) Electron Emission due to Positive Ion Impact :

Positive ions are formed due to ionization by collision or by photo-

ionization, and being positively charged, they travel towards the
cathode.
A positive ion approaching a metallic cathode can cause emission
of electrons from the cathode by giving up its kinetic energy on
impact. If the total energy of the positive ion, namely, the sum of
its kinetic energy and the ionization energy, is greater than twice
the work function of the metal then one electron will be ejected and
a second electron will neutralise the ion. The probability of this
process is measured as γ which is called the Townsend’s secondary
ionization coefficient due to positive ions and is defined as the net
yield of electrons per incident positive ion. γi increases with ion
velocity and depends on the kind of gas and electrode material
used.
i
(b) Electron Emission due to Photons

To cause an electron to escape from a metal, it should be given enough energy to

overcome the surface potential barrier. The energy can also be supplied in the form of a
photon of ultraviolet light of suitable frequency. Electron emission from a metal
surface
occurs at the critical condition (see Eq. (2.11))
where ϕ is the work function of the metallic electrode. The frequency ( v) is given by the
relationship is known as the threshold frequency. For a clean nickel surface with ϕ =
4.5 eV, the threshold frequency will be that corresponding to a wavelength λ = 2755 Å.
If the incident radiation has a greater frequency than the threshold frequency, then the
excess energy goes partly as the kinetic energy of the emitted electron and partly to
heat the surface of the electrode. Since ϕ is typically a few electrons volts, the threshold
frequency lies in the far ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum.
c) Electron Emission due to Metastable and Neutral Atoms

A meta-stable atom or molecule is an excited particle whose lifetime is very

large (10-3 s) compared to the lifetime of an ordinary particle (10 -8 s). Electrons
can be ejected from the metal surface by the impact of excited (metastable)
atoms, provided that their total energy is sufficient to overcome the work
function. This process is most easily observed with metastable atoms, because
the lifetime of other excited states is too short for them to reach the cathode and
cause electron emission, unless they originate very near to the cathode surface.
Therefore, the yields can also be large nearly 100%, for the interactions of
excited He atom with a clean surface of molybdenum, nickel or magnesium.
Neutral atoms in the ground state also give rise to secondary electron emission if
their kinetic energy is high ( ˜ 1000 eV).
At low energies the yield is considerably less.
Electron Attachment Process

The types of collisions in which electrons may become attached to atoms or

molecules to form negative ions are called attachment collisions. Electron
attachment process depends on the energy of the electron and the nature of the
gas and is a very important process from the engineering point of view. All
electrically insulating gases, such as O2, CO2, Cl2 exhibit this property. An
electron-attachment process can be represented as, F2, C2F6, C3F8, C4F
The energy liberated as a result of this process is the kinetic energy K plus the
electron affinity E.
In the attaching or insulating gases, the atoms or molecules have vacancies in
their outermost shells and, therefore, have an affinity for electrons. The
attachment process plays a very important role in the removal of free electrons
from an ionized gas when arc interruption occurs in gas-insulated switchgear.
The effect of attachment on breakdown in gases is discussed in Sec. 2.8 of this
chapter.
Mechanism of Breakdown in Gases / Air

(i) Townsend theory, and

(ii) Streamer theory
Townsend Theory of Breakdown in Gases
TOWNSED’S CURRENT GROWTH EQUATION
Let us assume that
n0 electrons are emitted from the cathode.
When one electron collides with a neutral particle, a positive ion and an electron are formed.
This is called an ionizing collision. Let a be the average number of ionizing collisions made
by an electron per centimetre travel in the direction of the field (a depends on gas pressure p
and EIp, and is called the Townsend's first ionization coefficient).
At any distance x from the cathode, let the number of electrons be nx.
When these nx electrons travel a further distance of dx they give rise to (cui^dx)
electrons.
At jc= 0,K
x = H0 (2.6)
dn x

Also, "T~= cw^;or/ijc = n0exp(ou) (2.7)

Then, the number of electrons reaching the anode (x = d) will be
n d- o
n P (a ^3O (2.8)
ex

The number of new electrons created, on the average, by each electron is

nd-no
exp (Od)-I= (2.9)
*0
Therefore, the average current in the gap, which is equal to the number of electrons
travelling per second will be
I= I0 exp (ad) (2.10)
where IQ is the initial current at the cathode.
 CURRENT GROWTH IN THE PRESENCE OF SECONDARY
PROCESSES
The single avalanche process becomes complete when the initial set of electrons reaches
the anode.

However, since the amplification of electrons [exp(αd)] is occurring in the field, the
probability of additional new electrons being liberated in the gap by other mechanisms
increases, these new electrons create further avalanches.

Avalanche: a sudden arrival or occurrence of something in overwhelming quantities .

The other mechanisms are

I. The positive ions liberated may have sufficient energy to cause liberation of
electrons from the cathode when they impinge on it.
II. The excited atoms or molecules in avalanches may emit photons, and this will lead to
the emission of electrons due to photo-emission.
III. The metastable particles may diffuse back causing electron emission.

The electrons produced by these processes are called secondary electrons.

The secondary ionization coefficient y is defined as the net number of secondary
electrons produced per incident positive ion, photon, excited particle, or metastable
particle, and the total value of λ is the sum of the individual coefficients due to the three
different processes, i.e.,

λ = Y I + Y 2 + Y3

λ is called the Townsend's secondary ionization coefficient and is a function of the gas
pressure p and E/p.
 Let
n0 - be the number of electrons leaving the cathode in the presence of α only
n0' - number of secondary electrons produced due to secondary (γ) processes
n0'' - total number of electrons leaving the cathode
n0'' = n0 + n'
The total number of electrons n reaching the anode
 

 
Determination of Coefficients α and γ
Typical current growth curve in a Townsend discharge
Townsend type log (I/ I0) vs. d plot
The variation of a/p with E/p in hydrogen and nitrogen, p0 in both x and y
axes ref ers to values of pressure reduced to 0°C
 Breakdown in Electronegative Gas

One process that gives high breakdown strength to a gas is the electron
attachment in which free electrons get attached to neutral atoms or molecules to
form negative ions.

The gases in which attachment plays an active role are called electronegative
gases.

common attachment processes in gases are:

1. The direct attachment in which an electron directly attaches to form a
negative ion, and

2. The dissociative attachment in which the gas molecules split into their
constituent atoms and the electronegative atom forms a negative ion.
Electronegative Gases:
1. Oxygen
2. Sulphur hexafluoride
3. Freon
4. carbon dioxide, and
5. Fluorocarbons

In these gases, ‘A’ is usually sulphur or carbon atom, and ‘B’ is oxygen
atom or one of the halogen atoms or molecules.
With such gases, the Townsend current growth equation is modified to
include ionization and attachment.

An attachment coefficient (η) is defined, similar to α, as the number of

attaching collisions made by one electron drifting one centimetre in the
direction of the field.
 TIME LAGS FOR BREAKDOWN

There is a time difference between the application of a voltage

sufficient to cause breakdown and the occurrence of breakdown
itself. This time difference is called the time lag.

The time t which lapses between the application of the voltage

sufficient to cause breakdown and the appearance of the
initiating electron is called a statistical time lag (t ) of the gap.

After the appearance of the electron, a time t is required for the

ionization processes to develop fully to cause the breakdown of
the gap, and this time is called the formative time lag ( tf ). The
total time ts + tf = t is called the total time lag as shown in Fig.
Time Lag Depends On:

Statistical time lag

1. The statistical time lag depends upon the amount of pre-ionization present
in the gap.
2. the size of the gap and
3. the quantity of radiation that produces the primary electrons.

The formative time lags depend mostly on the mechanism of the avalanche
growth in the gap.

In cases where the secondary electrons are produced only due to the
bombardment of the cathode by the positive ions, the transit time of the
positive ion from the anode to the cathode will predominantly contribute for
the formative time lag.

The formative time lag is usually much shorter than the statistical time lag
and therefore the statistical time lag can be determined by measuring the
total time lag.
Voltage-time characteristics
STREAMER THEORY OF BREAKDOWN IN GASES
 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN USING
GASES AND GAS MIXTURES FOR INSULATION PURPOSES

1. high dielectric strength,

2. thermal stability and chemical inactivity towards materials of
construction,
3. non-flammability and physiological inertness, and environmentally
non-hazardous,
4. low temperature of condensation,
5. good heat transfer, and
6. ready availability at moderate cost.
 VACUUM AS INSULATION

In the case of perfect vacuum, there should be no conduction and the

vacuum should be a perfect insulating medium.

However, in practice, the presence of metallic electrodes and insulating

surfaces within the vacuum complicate the issue and, therefore, even in
vacuum, a sufficiently high voltage will cause a breakdown.
Applications

In devices such as vacuum contactors and interrupters,

high frequency capacitors and relays,
electrostatic generators,
microwave tubes, etc.

The contactors and circuit breakers using vacuum as insulation are finding
increasing applications in power systems.
 What is Vacuum?
A vacuum system which is used to create vacuum is a system in which the
pressure is maintained at a value much below the atmospheric pressure.

In vacuum systems the pressure is always measured in terms of millimetres of

mercury,

where one standard atmosphere is equal to 760 millimetres of mercury at a

temperature of 0°C.

The term ‘millimetres of mercury’ has been standardized as ‘Torr ’ by the

International Vacuum Society, where one millimetre of mercury is taken as
equal to one Torr.
Vacuum may be classified as

For electrical insulation purposes, the range of vacuum generally used is

the ‘high vacuum’, in the pressure range of 10-3 Torr to 10-6 Torr.
 Electron Emission in Vacuum

When the voltage across a small vacuum gap (< 2 mm) is increased, a
relatively small current, mainly due to electrons, flows.

For higher gaps (< 10 mm) small pulses of current, called microdischarges
flow either independently or superposed over the steady current.

For both the types of gaps, subsequent increase of applied voltage causes the
breakdown of the gap.
 Vacuum Breakdown

(a) Particle exchange mechanism

(b) Field emission mechanism

(c) Clump theory

Particle Exchange Mechanism

Particle exchange mechanism of vacuum break down

 Field Emission Theory

(i) Anode Heating Mechanism

(ii) Cathode Heating Mechanism

(i) Anode Heating Mechanism

Electron beam anode heating mechanism of vacuum break down

ii. Cathode Heating Mechanism

Break down in vacuum caused by the heating of a microprojection on the cathode

 (c) Clump Mechanism

this theory has been developed on the following assumptions

1. A loosely bound particle (clump) exists on one of the electrode surfaces.

2. On the application of a high-voltage, this particle gets charged,

subsequently gets detached from the mother electrode, and is
accelerated across the gap.

3. The breakdown occurs due to a discharge in the vapour or gas released

by the impact of the particle at the target electrode.
Clump mechanism of vacuum break down