BASIC CONCEPTS IN

ASSESSMENT
Introduction
As teachers, we are continually faced with the
challenge of assessing the progress of our students as
well as our own effectiveness as teachers.
Assessment decisions could substantially improve
students performance, guide the teachers in
improving the educational system. At the same time,
however, poor assessment procedures could
adversely affect the students, teachers and
administrators.
 Assessment of learning is a tricky business,
indeed, for it requires measuring concepts,
ideas and abstract constructs quite unlike the
assessment of physical quantities which can be
done with appropriate degree of accuracy. In
assessment of learning, we deal with
intangibles and attempt to characterize them
in a manner that would be widely understood.
 Not too long ago, assessment of learning
was confined to techniques and procedure
for determining whether or not cognitive
knowledge (memorization of facts and
theories) was successfully acquired. Thus,
assessment was essentially confined to
pencil-paper testing of the cognitive levels of
learning (Bloom, 1954).
 In the past two decades, however, educators
and educationists recognized that not only are
we expected to function effectively in the
modern world, interact with other people, and
adjust to situations. Such expectations have not
been matched with appropriate assessment
methods which could identify successful
acquisition of skills other than cognitive skills.
 Consequently, the traditional
assessment method of pencil and
paper testing identified potentially
high performing students who, in
later life have not been successful in
coping with the demands of society.
The most common method assessing
student learning is through
tests(teacher- made or standardized).
Assessment of Learning refers to strategies
designed to confirm what students know,
determine whether or not they have met
curriculum outcomes or the goals of their
individualized programs, or to certify proficiency
and make decisions about students’ future
programs or placements. It is designed to provide
evidence of achievement to parents, other
educators, the students themselves, and
sometimes to outside groups (e.g. employers,
other educational institutions.
 In the most general sense, assessment is
the process of making a judgment or
measurement of worth of an entity(e.g.,
person, process or program). Educational
assessment involves gathering and
evaluating data evolving from planned
learning activities or programs. This form of
assessment is often referred to as
evaluation.
Learner assessment represents a particular type
of educational assessment normally conducted by
teachers and designed to serve several related
purposes. These purposes include:
• Motivating and directing learning
• Providing feedback to student on their
performance.
• Providing feedback on instruction and/or
curriculum;
• Ensuring that standards of progression are met.
 Learner assessment is best conceived as a form
of two-way communication in which feedback on
the educational process or product is provided to
its key stakeholders . Specifically, learner
assessment involves communication to teachers
(feedback of teaching); students (feedback on
learning); curriculum designers(feedback on
curriculum); and administrators (feedback on use
of resources).
Classroom assessment can help teachers answer
the following specific questions:
1. To what extent are my students achieving the
stated goals?
2. How should I allocate class time for the
current topic?
3. Can I teach this topic in a more efficient or
effective way?
4. What parts of this course/unit do my
students find the most valuable?
5. How will I change this course/unit do my
students find the most valuable?
6. What grades do I assign my students?
The aim of assessment is to improve and
develop student learning, not just to find out how
good students are at some kinds of examination.
Assessment system should be convenient for all
students, and should contribute to the
development and improvement of all the students’
potentials toward a higher level of learning.
 Teaching and learning include a lot of
instructional decisions to enhance and increase
student learning, hence, quality of instruction is
strongly connected to the structure of
information on which these instructional
decisions are made. Therefore the most
important point is the determination of the way
in which good, valid, and reliable information
about student learning can be
provided(O’Neil,et al.2004).
 Linn (2003) stated that student learning
requires the use of a number of techniques for
measuring achievement. In order for effective
teaching to take place in the classroom, teachers
must use different techniques of assessment to
correlate with the goals they have to set for their
students. If the wrong method of assessment is
used, the teacher risks the appropriate
measurement of their students’ achievement on
the learning goals for the specific unit. students
can be assessed.
• Teaching students in classrooms ensures
teachers’ professional development and leads
them to learn, construct, and find out new
knowledge how best students can be
assessed.
• Cisek (2001) emphasized that it is necessary to
improve the quality of students thinking by
including the learners into assessment process
so they become integral part of it.
• Therefore, the teacher needs to encourage
them to become independent learners who
can take responsibility for their own learning.
In this context, learners must be aware of the
importance of critical thinking as a learning
practice. The use of formative assessment
activities as a tool could achieve this (Downing
and Haladyna, 2006).
 MEASUREMENT
Thorndike and Hagen(1986) define
measurement as the process of quantifying
observations and/or descriptions about a quality
or attribute of a thing or person. “The process
of measurement involves three steps:
1. Identifying and defining the quality or
attribute that is to be measured;
2. Determining a set of operations by which the
attribute may be made manifest and
perceivable; and
3. Establishing a set of procedures or definitions
for translating observations into quantitative
statement of degree or amount.
Methods of Data Collection
Data are generally collected through one or
more of the following methods:
1. Paper and pencil. Collection of data through
self-reports, interviews, questionnaires, tests, or
other instruments.
2. Systematic Observation. Researcher looks
for specific actions or activities, but is not
involved in the actions being observed.
3. Participant Observation. Researcher is
actively involved in the process being described
and writes observations at a later time.
4. Clinical. Data are collected by specialists in
the process of treatment.
 McMillan (19197) stated that measurement
involves using observation, rating scales, or any
other non-test device that secures information in a
quantitative form. The term measurement can
refer to both the score obtained and the process
used.
Uses of Educational Measurement (Mehren and
Lehmann, 1991).
1. Direct Instructional Decisions. Observing,
measuring and drawing conclusions are ongoing
activities in most classrooms.
Teachers not only test students to see what they have
learned (diagnosing), but they also observe the learning
process.
2. Instructional Management Decisions. Classification
and placement decisions or counseling and guidance
decisions.
3. Entry-Exit Decisions . Tests are used to help educators
decide (1) who should enter particular educational
institutions or programs of study(selection decisions) and
(2) who has completed the requirements to leave that
program(certification decisions).
4. Program, Administrative, and Policy Decisions.
Decisions that affect educational programs,
curricula and systems.
5. Decisions Associated with Expanding Our
Knowledge Base. Testing for educational research.
Measurement is the process of making
empirical observations of some attribute,
characteristic or phenomenon and translating
those observations into quantifiable or categorical
form according to clearly specified procedures or
 rules(Gredler, 1997). Educational measurement, then,
refers to the process of determining a quantitative or
qualitative academic attribute of an individual or group of
individuals.
Evaluation is a process of summing up the results of
measurements or tests, giving them some meaning based
on value judgments (Hopkins and Stanley, 1981); while
educational evaluation is the process of characterizing
and appraising some aspect or aspects of an educational
process. It is systematic determination of merit, worth,
and significance of something or someone using criteria
against a set of standards.
• Through the process of evaluation, teachers
can interpret evidence of learning make
judgments, and give value to the results
gathered through assessment in the form of a
score or grade for reporting purposes. If a
picture of student achievement is required,
evaluation reports are needed. There are
common purposes in educational evaluation
which at times, in conflict with one another.
Educational Institutions require evaluation data:
1. To demonstrate effectiveness and
2. To provide a measure of performance for
marketing purposes.
Educational Evaluation is also a professional
activity that individual educators need to
undertake if they intend to continuously review
and enhance the learning they are endeavoring
to facilitate.
 An educational evaluation is an assessment of
teaching reading, written language, spelling and
mathematics.
Evaluation is…
1. the means used to determine the worth or value of
training program.
2. the process of improving a training process or
deciding whether or not to continue it.
3. the process of delineating, collecting, and providing
information useful for judging training decision
alternatives.
 Evaluation involves making judgments about the
correctness of the strategy (including means
adopted) and particularly about the outcomes or
specific benefits that the strategy delivers, “worth”
is more than just monetary worth, it answers the
questions of”
“Is training achieving the results that it was set
up to achieve?”
“Are the actual results worth having?”
“Were the results achieved achieved by the
most cost-effective methods?”
In assessment of student learning, the following
are important:
1. Feedback provides quality control over the
design and delivery of activities. Some
important “evaluation for feedback”
questions include:
a. Are the objectives met?
b. Were pertinent topics and learning
events covered?
 c. Is there evidence of before and after learning?
d. Is there evidence of transfer of learning back
to the workplace?
e. Do we know for whom the program was most
and least beneficial?
f. What is good and what is not so good
assessment of student learning?
2. Control relates training policy and practice to
organizational goals(productivity, cost-benefit
analysis).
Some important “evaluation for control”
questions include:
a. What is the value of the training to the
organization?
b. Are measures of worth compared to
measures of cost?
c. Was consideration given to different
combinations of interventions for tackling the
problem (were options besides training
considered)?
3. Research is to add to knowledge of training
principles to improve techniques. Some
important “evaluation for research” questions
include:
a. Internal validity: To what extent can particular
conclusions justly be drawn from the data
collected?
b. External validity: To what extent can
information gained from a training program be
applicable generally to other situations?
4. Intervention is the process of using evaluation
to affect the way the program being evaluated is
viewed, and subsequently using this to redefine
the sharing of learning between trainers,
trainees, and employing managers. Some
important “evaluation for intervention” questions
include:
a. Are line managers involved in pre/post
training activities?
b. Is management an extension of training?
c. Are changes made in the work environment to
support use of new skills learned during
training?
d. Does the training cause the training
department to continually rethink and adjust
deployment of trainers to functions that
strengthen the role of training?
5. Power is to use evaluation information for a
political agenda.
a. Is evidence gathered and used via evaluation
based upon sound evidence?
b. Is it presented fairly and ethically?
c. Is it reported to appropriate stakeholders?
ASSESSMENT
Assessment is the systematic collection, review,
and use of information about educational
programs undertaken for the purpose of
improving student learning and development.
Assessment is a formative process that
focuses on student learning. Assessment
involves:
1. Setting explicit student learning goals or
outcomes for an academic program;
2. Evaluating the extent to which students
are reaching those goals and
3. Using the information for program
development and improvement.
 The purpose of assessment is to understand
how educational programs are working and to
determine whether they are contributing to
student growth and development. In most
schools, assessment is considered an important
tool that facilitates discussion about academic
and student programs and provides useful
information to guide continuous program
improvement(Quellmalz, 1991).
 Oosterhof (2001) defined assessment as a “a
related series of measures used to determine
complex attribute of an individual or group of
individuals. Assessment is the process of
observing and measuring learning. It provides
the teachers with a better understanding of
what students are learning and engage students
more deeply in the process of learning.
• By using assessment strategies that draw
students into the assessment process it is
more likely that they will learn more of the
content that the teachers want them to learn
as well as get the added benefits of the
learning skills that will be used to them in the
future. Assessment must be:
a. Fair, balanced, and grounded in the art and
science of learning and teaching;
2. Reflective of curricular and developmental
goals and representative of the content that
students have had an opportunity to learn;
3. Used to inform and improve instruction;
4. Designed to accommodate students with
special needs; and
5. Valid, reliable, and supported by professional,
scientific, and ethical standards designed to fairly
assess the unique and diverse abilities and
knowledge base of all students.
• The following are the six assessment and
grading practices for effective learning
(Gronlund, 1985):
1. Show criteria and models in advance.
Rubrics and multiple models showing both
strong and weak points help learners judge
their own performances.
2. Assess before teaching.
3. Offer appropriate choices. While keeping
goals in mind, options judiciously offered enable
students different opportunities for best
demonstrating their learning.
4. Provide feedback early and often. Learners
will benefit from opportunities to act on the
feedback –to refine, revise, practice and retry.
5. Encourage self-assessment and goal setting.
6. Allow new evidence of achievement to replace
old evidence.
 The Functions of Assessment
1. Formative assessment provides diagnostic
feedback to students at short –term intervals
(e.g. during a class or on a weekly basis).
2. Summative assessment provides a description
of students’ level of attainment upon
completion of an activity, module or course.
3. Evaluative assessment provides instructors
with curricular feedback (e.g. the value of a
field trip or oral presentation technique).
High Quality Assessment must rest on strong
educational foundations. These foundations
include organizing schools to meet the learning
needs of their students understanding how
students learn, establishing high standards for
student learning, and providing equitable and
adequate opportunity to learn. Assessment
plays a positive role in improving education for
all students (Ascher, 1990).
 Principles and Indicators of
Assessment of Student Learning
Principle 1: The Primary Purpose of
Assessment is to Improve Student Learning.
Assessment systems provide useful information
about whether students have reached important
learning goals and about the progress of each
student. They employ practices and methods
that are consistent with learning goals,
curriculum, instruction and current knowledge of
how students learn.
Principle 2. Assessment for Other Purposes
Supports Student Learning. Assessment
systems, report on and certify student learning
and provide information for school
improvement and accountability by using
practices that support important learning.
Important decisions, such as high school
graduation are made on the basis of information
gathered over time, not on a single assessment.
Principle 3. Assessment Systems are Fair to
all students.
Assessment systems, including instruments,
policies, practices and uses, are fair to all
students. Assessment systems ensure that all
students receive fair treatment so as not to limit
students’ present and future opportunities.
Principle 4. Professional Collaboration and
Development Support Assessment.
Knowledgeable and fair educators are essential
for high quality assessment.
Assessment systems depend on educators who
understand the full range of assessment
purposes, use appropriately a variety of suitable
methods, work collaboratively, and engage in on
going professional development to improve
their capability as assessors.
Schools of education prepare teachers and
other educators determine and participate in
professional development and work together to
improve their craft.
Their competence is strengthened by groups of
teachers scoring student’s work at their levels.
Schools provide needed resources for professional
development.
Principle 5: The Broad Community Participates in
Assessment Development. Assessment systems
draw on the community’s knowledge and ensure
support by including parents, community members
and students, together with educators and
professionals with particular expertise, in the
development of the system.
Discussion of assessment purposes and methods
involves a wide range of people interested in
education. Parents, students, and members of the
public join a variety of experts, teachers, and other
educators in shaping the assessment system.
Principle 6. Communication about assessment is
Regular and Clear. Educators, schools, districts, and
states clearly and regularly discuss assessment
system practices and student and program progress
with students, families, and the community.
Educators and institutions communicate, in
ordinary language, the purposes, methods, and
results of assessment. They focus on reporting
what students know and are able to do, what
they need to learn to do, and what will be done
to facilitate improvement. They report
achievement data in terms of agreed-upon
learning goals.
Principle 7: Assessment Systems are
Regularly Reviewed and Improved.
Assessment systems are regularly reviewed and
improved to ensure that the system are
educationally beneficial to all students.
Assessment systems must evolve and improve.
Even well-designed systems must adapt to
changing conditions and the assessment system.
Reviewers include stakeholders in the education
system and independent expert analysts.
Criteria for Describing Assessments
When describing assessments, the distinction
is often made between proficiency tests,
intended for administrative purposes, and
achievement tests, intended for assessment of
instructional results(Cohen, 1994).
Administrative, instructional and research
purposes are:
Administrative general assessment, placement,
promotion.
Instructional diagnosis, evidence of progress,
feedback to the respondent, evaluation of
teaching and curriculum.
Research evaluation, experimentation,
knowledge of language learning and language
use.
 EXERCISE 1. (5 pts. Each)
1. In your own words, define assessment of
student learning.
2. List the different purposes of evaluation and
briefly explain each in your own words.
3. Think of two examples of evaluation you have
witnessed. Briefly described the evaluation
strategy/activities and link the evaluation
with one (or more, if applicable) of the
purpose of evaluation you have learned.
 Cont. of exercise 1.
4. Differentiate each of the following:
measurement, evaluation, and assessment.
5. How can assessment of student learning help
teachers?
6. Why must teachers use many different
techniques of assessment?
7. What are the functions of assessment?
8. From what must high quality of assessment
rely on? Explain.
9. How would you distinguish each of the
following assessments:
a. administrative
b. instructional
c. research
10. How can assessment help improve education
for all students?