ASSESS YOUR NEEDS

FOLLOWING STATEMENTS DESCRIBE THE NEED

PATTERNS OF PEOPLE. JUDGE HOW ACCURATELY EACH IS
DESCRIPTIVE TO YOU.

RECORD YOUR ANSWERS ACCORDING TO THE

FOLLOWING SCALES.

VERY DESCRITIVE OF YOU = 5

FAIRLY DESCRIPTIVE OF YOU = 4
SOMEWHAT DESCRIPTIVE OF YOU = 3
NOT VERY DESCRIPTIVE OF YOU = 2
NOT DESCRIPTIVE OF YOU = 1
1. I aspire to accomplish difficult tasks,
maintain high standards and am willing to
work towards distant goals.

2. I enjoy being with friends and people in

general and accept people readily.

3. I am easily annoyed and sometimes I am

willing to hurt people to get my way.

4. I try to break away from restraints or

restrictions of any kind.

5. I want to be the centre of attention and

enjoy having an audience.
6. I speak freely and tend to act on the “spur of the
moment”.

7. I assist others whenever possible, giving sympathy

and comfort to those in need

8. I believe in the saying that “there is a place for

everything and everything should be in its place”.

9. I express my opinions forcefully, enjoy the role of

leader, and try to control my environment as much as
I can.

10. I want to understand many areas of knowledge and

value synthesizing ideas and generalization.
ITEMS NEEDS

1. Achievement
2. Affiliation
3. Aggression
4. Autonomy
5. Exhibition
6. Impulsivity
7. Nurturance
8. Order
9. Power
10. Understanding
1. Sarita Dewan is an engineer who has
been working with a leading software
company for the past 15 years. She is
interested in a managerial post. Most
engineers in managerial positions in the
company have had some administrative
experience as project directors before they
were promoted.

Although Sarita knows that she needs

the administrative experience, she is
reluctant to take on the responsibility as a
project director because of the hassles in
coordinating the activities of various
functions.
2 Last year Image Motor Company, used a
sales contest to motivate its sales staff to
increase their sales revenue. Two sales
persons were selected from each regional
sales office for grand prices. The first prize
was an automobile and the second prize
was an all expenses paid vacation to
Manali. The company has decided to
continue the programme because of the
positive response to the contest in the first
year. Yet, regional sales managers indicate
that their sales personnel are not as excited
about the contest as they were in the first
year. Very few are even talking about the
contest.
3. Vikas owns two fast food shops in a small town in
Maharashtra. Each shop sells items such as pizzas,
sandwiches, ice creams, milkshakes and soft drinks. He
employs the local college students to work for him as
waiters. He pays his employees on an hourly basis. He
has recently observed that they do not process
customer orders as fast as they should and customers
end up waiting for a long time for food. Some of them
are serving generous portion while others serve very
small portions especially in cases of ice creams and
drinks.

1. Identify the causes of these problems

2. Identify potential solutions for each situation.
Perhaps the most intriguing question that has
bothered psychologists is the “why” of
behaviour.
G
O
NEEDS DRIVE MOTIVE A
L
Every behaviour is goal directed that stems from a
motive to attain the goal. A motive, in turn arises out of a
desire to fulfil a particular need.

Motivation is thus an inner urge to behave purposefully

for satisfaction of needs which stem from different drives.
It is a multifaceted complex process.
 The word motivation has been
derived from the Latin word “movere”
which means “to move”.

According to Weiner (1990),

Motivation is :-

 Not all or none ;

 Can be inferred only from behaviour

 “Motivation is a mental state which
instigates us to perform some task,
makes the action goal oriented and
engages us in action until the goal is
achieved.”

Work motivation "is a set of energetic

forces that originate both within as well
as beyond an individual's being, to
initiate work-related behaviour, and to
determine its form, direction, intensity,
and duration"
 In his relentless struggle to strike a
balance between the strategic goals of
the organisation and the needs of
individual employees, the foremost
important task of a manager, is to
determine what “motivates” people at
workplace.
Scientific Management

 Money was given the priority as compared to

the other 2 “M” s namely Material and Machine.
 The most significant aspect of an organization,
Man was given the lowest priority.
 Frederick Winslow Taylor, conceived that
increase in productivity and employee satisfaction
could be brought about by the introduction of
piece work, standardization of tools and
machineries at workplace, an incentive scheme
that relates bonuses to level of output.
 Frank Gilbreth introduced the Time and
Motion Studies .

Fatigue , was his primary concern as he held it

responsible for lack of optimal production .

 He also laid emphasis on working conditions

like illumination, rest periods, canteen facilities
etc.
 Human Relations approach
The human relations movement and the
Hawthorne Studies voiced strongly against the
“coldness” of the scientific management and
bureaucratic model .
 Realized that employees beyond anything else
were human beings whose social needs need for
acceptance and recognition should be given
priority beyond anything else.

 Therefore organizations should be made more

open and flexible thereby encouraging strong
interpersonal relationship.
 The Content Theories of Motivation Emphasize on:-

 The factors that motivate employees to perform

in work settings and

 Also called needs theories, because they try to

identify what our 'needs' are and relate
motivation to the fulfilling of these needs.
The most well known content theories of work
motivation are:-

• Need Hierarchy Theory by Maslow

• Mc Gregor’ s Theory X and Theory Y

• ERG Theory by Alderfer

• Mc Cleland’s Theory of Needs

• Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Need Hierarchy Theory by

Maslow
'It is quite true that man lives by bread alone
— when there is no bread. But what are
man’s desires when there is plenty of bread
and when his belly is chronically filled?....

This is what we mean by saying that the

basic human needs are organized into a
hierarchy of relative pre potency' (Maslow,
1943, p. 375).
Physiological Needs
In the Organizational context, an adequate
salary is essential for the employee to maintain
minimum basic requirements like proper food,
healthy living and working conditions,
sufficient rest periods, opportunity for physical
exercise etc.

It has been observed that employees belonging

to third world countries are found to thrive for
attainment of this particular level of need more as
compared to the 1st world countries.
Security or safety

Organizations can provide employees

opportunity to satisfy the safety needs by offering
them life and health insurance plans, safety
gadgets, training in maintaining safety at the
workplace, pension plans etc.

Jobs that involve frequent layoffs and

turnover are challenging to the gratification of
safety needs of an employee.
Social needs
Informal meetings of the employees of the same
department or among departments in the form of
Occasional get-togethers , informal communication
and interactions in the canteens or coffee corners can
satisfy the social needs of an employee.

Social needs seem to emerge more in situations when

organizational uncertainty prevail due to merger,
rightsizing or closure.

Employees often derive support from each other and

may derive a sense of worth and belongingness when
affiliated to a group and accepted by his colleagues
and friends.
 Self Esteem
The esteem needs can be
esteem that people attach to themselves, intrinsically
involving a desire for strength, achievement, sense of
competence and adequacy, independence and autonomy
and
 esteem that other people usually bestow on us namely
status, popularity, fame, recognition, appreciation etc.

Thwarting of these needs may culminate into feelings of

inadequacy, inferiority and helplessness.

Organizations may thus arrange for external rewards,

awards, prize giving ceremonies where employees may be
declared as best producer of the month etc.
 Separate parking spaces, personal
working spaces like cubicles may be assigned
to the employees to satisfy their need for self
esteem.

However, it should be noted that the rewards

should be considered to be of significance by
the employee.

Financial reward for an employee who does

not attach much importance to money may
serve no purpose.
 Self-actualization

Abraham Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that

human motivation is based on people seeking
fulfillment and change through personal growth.
Self-actualized people are those who were fulfilled
and doing all they were capable of.
However, most organizations cannot provide job
opportunities where maximum creativity and
chance for exercising employee’s fullest potential
can be fully utilized.
 Maslow’s theory of need hierarchy
 Perhaps the most popular amongst the theories of
motivation.
 Practising managers have recognized that the theory
provides a deep understanding of human needs and
behaviour of an employee in an organization.

However, the theory is not beyond criticism

 it lacks in validation and adequate empirical evidence
(Hall and Nougaim 1968:Lawler and Suttle,1972).

 Especially, Maslow’s concept of Self Actualization is

based on his personal notion by studying some people
whom he thought to be self actualized. So , it is
ethnocentric- applicable in America only. .
 The most significant criticism amongst all is
Maslow’s concept of satisfaction of higher order
needs becomes relevant only when the lower
order needs have been gratified. However it is
often seen that an individual may engage himself
hours after hours in painting when he has not got
adequate income to satiate his hunger.

 Moreover, every individual is unique.

Therefore one may attach more importance to
social needs whereas the other to esteem needs
and yet someone else to basic physiological
needs.
 Contemporary research by Tay & Diener (2011) has
tested Maslow’s theory. The data of 60,865 participants
from 123 countries, representing every major region of the
world were analyzed.
The results of the study reveal the fact that
 Universal human needs appear to exist regardless of
cultural differences which supports Maslow’s notion.

 However, the ordering of the needs within the

hierarchy was not correct.

According to Diener "Even when we are hungry, for

instance, we can be happy with our friends. "They're
like vitamins," Diener says on how the needs work
independently. "We need them all."
Management Assumptions (Theory X and Theory Y)

Douglas McGregor opined that every manager

makes assumptions about his employees which is
either basically negative - theory X or basically
positive termed as theory Y.

Accordingly he adopts a management approach

based upon these assumptions.
  Theory X, assumes a worker to be negative who
needs continuous monitoring. Assumptions of the
manager are:-
• The average human being has an inherent dislike for
work and will avoid it at the slightest opportunity
• Most people need to be coerced, controlled, directed
and threatened with punishment for attaining
organizational objectives, and
• The average person prefers to be directed, wishes to
avoid responsibility, has almost no ambition and desires
security above all the other needs.
McGregor holds that understanding of the needs of
employees based on these assumptions results in
employees becoming compelled to get transformed to
fit into this model.(SELF FULFILLING PROPHECY)
 McGregor proposed assumptions virtually opposite
to Theory X which he termed Theory Y.

The assumptions are as follows:

•Employees perceive Work as natural as play or rest.

•Individuals are self directed and exercise adequate
self control.
•So, external control and threat of punishment are no
way the means of attaining organizational objective
when the employees are committed.
•Commitment depends on the rewards associated
with their achievement.
•The employees not only learn to assume
responsibility but also seek to take responsibility.
• The ability to solve problems innovatively
and creatively is distributed across the
whole population not only centered at the
managerial level.

• Most of the organizations are only

capable of utilizing the capabilities of the
employees partially.
• Application of Theory Y, caters to the needs of an
organization and also to the needs of an individual
employee.

• McGregor believed that Theory X corresponds to

Maslow’s Deficiency needs, whilst Theory Y are akin to
the Growth Needs.

• He held that theory Y was more optimistic and more valid. This
assumption that employees view work as natural, creative, are self-
motivated, and appreciate responsibility, has attained utmost popularity
today, with self-empowered work teams becoming the norm.
• He thus emphasized on participative decision
making, healthy interpersonal relationships and
challenging jobs for increasing employees job
 Alderfer’ s ERG Theory
Based on Maslow’s theory of need hierarchy and
Herzberg’s two factor theory, Clayton P. Alderfer
formulated his ERG theory which appeared in 1969

According to Alderfer there exists three groups of core

needs -Existence, Relatedness and Growth.
 The existence needs are primarily concerned with the
satisfaction of the basic needs required for our basic survival.

 The relatedness needs are the needs for maintaining interpersonal

relationship and to be accepted by others.

 Growth Needs are the intrinsic needs of an individual for personal

advancement .
Alderfer’ s theory assumes that:-
 the lower order needs do not have to be gratified
first and only then can the higher level needs become
pre-potent. An individual for example may be
motivated to gratify his growth needs even when the
existence and relatedness needs have not been met
adequately.
 more than one set of needs may be operative at one
point of time and if the gratification of a higher order
need is stifled, the urge to gratify a lower order need
enhances- a phenomena called frustration–regression
effect. E.g., if an individual’s opportunity for personal
growth is thwarted in an organization, his/her desire to
earn more money or to work in a good working
environment might increase.
 The ERG theory of motivation justifies

for individual difference in behaviour .

His theory puts due emphasis on factors

such as cultural differences, differences in

education and family background.

 David McClelland (1961) identified three basic needs
regardless of our gender, culture, or age people develop
and acquire from their life experiences -namely need for
achievement(n Ach),need for power (n Pow) and need
for affiliation(n Aff). He maintained that all people
possess these three needs.
Need for achievement
• Characterizes the drive to excel, to strive towards
excellence and to achieve with respect to a standard.
• People with need for achievement dominant in them
have an impetus to succeed higher as compared to others.
•They are always driven by the urge to accomplish a task
successfully and better than the others.
•They strive for personal satisfaction rather than for
achieving rewards and external incentives.
•A high achiever derives satisfaction from
accomplishing relatively difficult tasks successfully than
others.
•However, they do not prefer jobs with low probability
of success rather in tasks that have a 0.5 probability
•They prefer doing tasks where immediate feedback is
involved
•The high achievers are not gamblers.
•They take up tasks where their success will only be
determined by their efforts and personal worth rather
than on chance factors.
•Hard driven and competitive with others, they are
constantly engaged in setting their own goals higher
and higher but in a realistic way.
 People possessing high need for power wish to
have impact on others and arouse strong emotions in
them such as fear, awe, anger, surprise etc.
 They prefer to be placed in competitive jobs ,enjoy
winning over an opponent, defeating a contender and
overpowering others in every possible way.
 These people tend to be engaged into power politics
in organizations and are inclined in forming their own
groups, alliances and cliques.
 These people prefer to have control over budgets,
resources, information projects etc. They enjoy to be
placed in positions of authority like being managers,
public officials, military officers, administrators,
politicians etc.(McClelland 1965,Winter,1973)
 Need for power may also be sometimes
indirectly gratified by watching violent
movies, contact sports etc.

 They usually love to possess and to

display objects representing their control
and power as compared to others like cars,
credit cards etc.

 They prefer drinking and are generally

found to be aggressive towards women
and abusive towards children.
. The need for Affiliation -the desire to maintain
friendly interpersonal relationships and
companionship.

 They are often insensitive to the cues that the

others are not liking him/her and in reality may be
actually hostile and rejecting him/her.

 A person with high n Aff likes to belong to

groups, attend social gatherings, enjoy parties.
In an organization, this person tends to work in
groups when the members are cooperative and
friendly (Litwin and Stringer, 1966).

Paying less importance to conflicts and

confrontation, the person usually complies with
others and avoids difference in opinions.

 People in authority positions with high n Aff

generally avoid taking unpopular stances with the
subordinates even when it is desirable for the sake
of administration.
 Mc. Clelland contented that people with a high drive to succeed
are more likely to be more highly motivated.
Seeming apparently controversial,
 an individual may have needs covering all the three categories.
A person may have the craving for satisfaction of need for
affiliation at the same time when he has the need for power.

 Also, different needs may have different strengths at

different moments depending on varying times. So, while a person
may strongly feel the need to affiliate during times of loneliness, he
may at another time feel the strong need for power when
instructed to organize an event.

 Needs may arise and be transformed depending on a change

of context.
 Motivator-Hygiene Theory of Work motivation,
Frederick Herzberg (1974).
He conducted a wide study on 200 accountants and
engineers around Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Using critical incident method, he asked the subjects
involved in the study two questions related to their jobs.
1. When did they feel particularly good
about their jobs- i.e. What turned them on and
2. When did they feel particularly bad in their jobs
-What turned them off?
The good feelings related to jobs were associated with
the job contents and job experience. Reported bad feelings
centered on the peripheral aspects of the job. Thus he
grouped the job characteristics into two categories.
“Satisfiers” or “Motivators” and Hygiene Factors.
Traditional views

Satisfaction Dissatisfaction

Herzberg’s View

Motivators

Satisfaction No Satisfaction

Hygiene Factors

No dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction
 A certain amount of Hygiene factors is
essential for biological sustenance of an
individual. When they are met optimally, an
individual is no longer dissatisfied. But that does
not mean that he will be satisfied.

Again, an inadequate amount of satisfaction

will prevent an individual from experiencing
positive satisfaction but will not result in job
dissatisfaction either. Therefore according to
Herzberg’s theory, the hygiene factors are
preventive-they prevent dissatisfaction
Four possible combinations.
•High Hygiene + High Motivation :
The ideal situation where employees are highly
motivated and have few complaints.
•High Hygiene + Low Motivation :
Employees have few complaints but are not highly
motivated. The job is viewed as a pay cheque.
•Low Hygiene + High Motivation :
Employees are motivated but have a lot of
complaints. A situation where the job is exciting and
challenging but salaries and work conditions are not up
to the mark.
•Low Hygiene + Low Motivation :
This is the worst situation where employees are not
motivated and have many complaints.
 Herzberg believed that the only way to motivate
the employees was to increase the satisfiers through a
method called “job enrichment” as motivation and
satisfaction were both dependent on the satisfiers.

Process of enriching a job

Accountability
Achievement
Control over resources
Feedback
Workplace

He opined that by improving pay structure,

supervision and working conditions motivation could
not be generated in the real sense of the term.
 Julio Warner Loiseau (2011), aimed to review
Herzberg’s two-factor theory to employee motivation
in today’s enterprises.

The review showed that Herzberg’s motivation-

hygiene theory best explained the process of
motivating employees.

It also indicated that achievement and company

policy have significant impact on the overall level of
employee job satisfaction, suggesting that managers
need to focus more on these factors to better motivate
employees.
 Studies that used the critical incident method
like those of Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman
(1959) supported the theory.
 However, studies that were conducted with the
help of other methods have failed to yield the same
results.
 In spite of having a simplistic approach, the
theory has not received much validation and
empirical evidence (Locke,1976: Miner and
Dachler,1973).
 It has been pointed out that the methodology
Herzberg used was limited since people usually take
credit on themselves when things are going right
and ascribe to external factors when things are not
going well.
 PROCESS THEORIES OF WORK MOTIVATION

Whereas content models depict different

types of needs in organizations at different
times, Process Model describes the process
through which need deficiencies are
translated into behaviour i.e. they discuss the
“HOW” of behavior.
 VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY
Motivation, according to Vroom (1964), boils down
to the decision of how much effort to exert in a specific
work situation. The choice is based on two stage
sequence of expectations (Effort Performance) and
(Performance Outcome).

Employees will be motivated to exert a high level of

effort when they believe it will lead to good
performance appraisal ; that a good appraisal will lead
to organizational rewards such as bonuses, salary
increases, promotions; and that rewards will satisfy the
employees personal goals.
 MF= V x I x E
MF= MOTIVATIONAL FORCE
V= VALENCE
I= INSTRUMENATALITY
E= EXPECTANCY
EXPECTANCY (EFFORT-PERFORMANCE
RELATIONSHIP)
First motivation is affected by an individual’s
expectation that a given level of effort will produce an
expected level of performance appraisal. If I give
maximum effort will it be recognized in my
performance appraisal?
Expectancies can range from 0 to 1. An expectancy of
0 indicates that there is no anticipated impact on
performance
1.Factors that influence an employees expectancy
perception are :-(Pinder1984)

 SELF ESTEEM
 PREVIOUS SUCCESS AT WORK
 HELP FROM A SUPERIOR OR
SUBORDINATE
 INFORMATION NECESSARY TO
COMPLETE THE TASK
 GOOD MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT TO
WORK WITH
Instrumentality (Performance-reward relationship)

Second, motivation is influenced by an individual’s

perceived chances of obtaining various outcomes as a
result of accomplishing performance goals (Performance-
Reward Relationship).

If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead

to organizational rewards?

It ranges from -1.0 to +1.0.

 VALENCE (Rewards-personal goals relationship)

Finally, individuals are also motivated to the extent

that they value the outcome that they receive (Rewards-
Personal Goals Relationship).

It refers to the positive or negative value that people

place on outcomes. Mostly people attach more values
to outcomes such as increased salary , promotion or
recognition and less values to factors like stress and
layoff. If I am rewarded, are the rewards
attractive to me?
 IMPLICATIONS OF EXPECTANCY THEORY

 It provides an information about the

outcomes which individuals value.

 It determines the amount of effort an

employee gives to a particular job.

 Provides an explanation about the connection

between performance and outcome.
Self determination theory
Extrinsic rewards reduce intrinsic interest in a task.
When people are paid for their jobs it feels less like
something they want to do and more like something
they have to do.
People prefer to feel they have control over their
actions so anything that makes a previously enjoyed
task feel more like an obligation than a freely chosen
activity will undermine motivation.
Rewards and Deadlines reduce motivation if people
perceive them coercive.

However, extrinsic rewards such as verbal praise and

feedback about competence and relatedness can even
increase intrinsic motivation.
JOB ENGAGEMENT THEORY

The investment of an employees physical, cognitive

and emotional energies into job performance.

Depends on how far the employee finds meaning in

the job. Meaning depends on

 job characteristics
 compatibility between individual values and the
values of the organization.
 Leadership behaviour.
EQUITY THEORY

Assumptions-

1. Individuals make contributions (inputs) for

which they expect certain outcomes.

2. Individuals decide, whether or not, a

particular exchange is satisfactory by
comparing their inputs and outcomes with
those of others and try to rectify any inequity.
 
 Overpaid Inequity

Person’s outcomes Other’s outcomes

______________ ≥ ________________
Person’s Inputs Other’s Inputs

Experience of Guilt.

Underpaid Inequity
 
Person’s outcomes Other’s
outcomes
_______________ ≤ _____ ____ _____
Person ’s Inputs Other’s Inputs

Experience of Dissonance
 Equity

Person’s outcomes Other’s outcomes

______________ ______________
Person’s Inputs = Other’s Inputs

Experience of Satisfaction
 Motivational Patterns in Indian Organizations
Indian organizations-two groups of individuals-managers
and workers. Some needs are common to them but
workers identify themselves distinctly. Differences are due
to:-
•Managers have certain authority in terms of decision
making which workers do not have.
•Social background, education, competence, aspirations,
level of growth avenues etc. Findings reveal:-
Financial benefits, job security, promotion are not
motivating for managers but are motivators for workers

 Recognition of work- motivator for both managers

and non managers
 Dissatisfaction of both the groups arise from
lack of explicit company policies, poor
administration, lack of technically skilled and
unsympathetic supervision and lack of
opportunity for growth.

 Top level management value achievement

and actualization while middle level values
advancement, type of work and feeling of
worthwhile achievement.

These are not so important for workers.