Aircraft Structural

Considerations
J. Byron Rogers, P.E.

J.B.Rogers/Structures
Structural Considerations
In Simple Terms
• The structure will not fail!
- Not statically under any static design ultimate load case
• Ultimate Load is typically 1.5 * Limit Load
• Covers part tolerances, statistical allowables, load exceedance
- Not after repeated loads within the lifetime of the vehicle
• The structure will not deflect such that something does not work
anymore!
- Doors will open when they are supposed to
- Nothing will yield
- Control surfaces will move through expected range
- No unexpected shock waves will form
• Structure will meet specified durability/ damage tolerance/ fail safety
requirements.
- No failures with specified damage within allowed inspection intervals
What Do You Need to Consider?
Imagine yourself as the Certifying or Procuring Agency designated
representative. You are responsible for assuring that the vehicle complies with
all structural criteria and requirements. What would it take to convince you that
the design was safe and should be certified?

• Are the external loads accurate and complete?

• Are good internal load paths provided?
• Are the internal loads balanced for each component and part? (Are free body
diagrams provided?)
• Do the material allowables meet the criteria/requirements? (Static strength,
DDT, thermal, manufacturing/processing considerations)
• Does the certification basis demonstrate compliance with criteria/requirements
– Detail analysis
– Tests
– Reports

J. B. Rogers/Structures
 Aircraft Structural Considerations
Different Objectives - Different Configurations - Similar Process
• 400 passengers
Criteria
• 40 year service life Requirements
• All weather Objectives
• FAR’s
• Maintainable • MIL Specs
• SOW/PDS
• Reliable Configuration
• Damage Tolerant

External Loads
Environments
•Pressures
•Inertia
•Thermal
• Military Fighter/Attack •Acoustic
• Carrier Suitable
• Mach 2
• nz = 7.5g Internal Loads Analysis Methods
Load Paths Sizing Allowables

• RPV Certification
•Tests
• Long Range •Reports
• Loiter XX Hours w/o refueling
Aircraft Loads, Conditions & Requirements
Requirements Have Evolved With Experience/Lessons Learned
Flight Loads: Ground Loads: Other Loads & Conditions:
• Maneuver • Vertical Load Factor • Jacking
• Gust • Braking • Pressurization
• Control Deflection • Bumps • Crash
• Buffet • Turns • Actuation
• Inertia • Catapult • Bird Strike
• Vibration • Arrested Landing • Lightning Strike
• Aborted Takeoff • Hail
• Spin-Up • Power Plant
• Spring Back • Thermal
• One Wheel/Two Wheel • Fatigue
• Towing • Damage Tolerance
• Ground Winds • Fail Safety
• Break Away • Acoustics
• Ground Handling
Specific Conditions are defined per:
• FAR Vol III (23 and 25)…………………….Commercial
• Mil-A-8860-8870 and SD-24L……………. Military
Aircraft Loads, Conditions & Requirements
Requirement: Bird Strike
Commercial Transport
• Wings/Body
The airplane must be capable of successfully completing a flight during which likely structural
damage occurs as a result of - Impact with a 4-pound bird when the velocity of the airplane
relative to the bird along the airplane's flight path is equal to Vc at sea level or 0.85Vc at 8,000
feet, whichever is more critical;
• Empennage
The empennage structure must be designed to assure capability of continued safe flight and
landing of the airplane after impact with an 8-pound bird when the velocity of the airplane
(relative to the bird along the airplane's flight path) is equal to V C at sea level
Military
Specifications typically require that catastrophic structural failure or loss of control of aircraft be
prevented after a defined limit of structural damage has occurred as a result of in-flight bird
strike.
No penetration of cockpit
• Danger to crew
No penetration of fuel tanks: This sounds like a nice
• In-flight fire hazard safeguard, but is it really
• Fuel loss necessary?
No damage to control surface actuation/controls
Aircraft Loads, Conditions & Requirements
Every Requirement and Condition is There for a Reason!

747/767/777 Daily Highlight Report

03 April 2001

Multiple Bird Strike - One Bird Entered Flight Deck 767 (L/N 447)
American Airlines reported that on April 2nd during climb from Paris,
at 12,000 feet, the reference airplane struck multiple birds impacting
various locations on the aircraft. One bird entered the flight deck
via the P1-1 panel on the captain's left side. All flight controls and
systems functioned normally. The crew elected to return to Paris where
an uneventful landing was made. The airplane is currently AOG in
Paris.
Aircraft Loads, Conditions & Requirements
Requirement: Bird Strike

• USAF - 34,856 bird strikes reported between Jan 1985 and Feb
1998
– 33,262 non-damaging (less than $10,000)
– 7,358 struck wings
– 764 were Horned Larks
– 348 were Turkey Vultures (+98 Black Vultures)
• Over 25,000 reported strikes to Civil aircraft between 1988 and
1992
• CAA estimates that UK registered A/C of over 12,000 lbs strike a
bird about once every 1,000 flights
Aircraft Loads, Conditions & Requirements
Lightning Strike: Same Story

Lightening Striking All Nippon Airlines, Osaka, Japan

Aircraft Loads, Conditions & Requirements
In-Flight Hail: Same Story

S/N 1019 took off from Lyon, France and climbed to

approximately 3000 ft when large hail/ice was
encountered. The slats were stowed as the aircraft
took damage for approximately 3-5 second. Aircraft
landed back at Lyon successfully. No other aircraft
in the area incurred similar damage.
The fan blades were inspected and were said to be
in pristine condition.
The aircraft will be ferried from Lyon to Marshalls of
Cambridge to be repaired.
Aircraft Loads, Conditions & Requirements
Typical Commercial Transport Critical Static Load Conditions
Positive Dynamic
Gust
Positive Maneuver Aileron Roll
and Static Gust
Yaw Maneuver and
Negative Maneuver Lateral Gust
Negative Maneuver
and Braking Buffet
Positive Checked
Maneuver

Gust Negative Checked

Maneuver

Lateral Maneuver
Taxi

Cabin Pressure Negative Gust

Different Load Conditions Engine Blade Out

are Critical for Different Areas

 Aircraft Loads, Conditions & Requirements
Typical Commercial Transport Jack Screw Ftg Center Box Rib 2
Rib 5
Critical Load Conditions Logo
Rib 8
Lights
Auxiliary Rib 10
Front Spar Rib 12
Surge Tank
Leading Rib 14
Edge
Fuel Vent
Tube/Return
Rear Line
Rib 1
Fixed Spar Surge Tank
Trailing Edge Vent Scoop
Wet Area

Lower Surface Skin/Stringers

9G Crash Stall Buffet Negative Maneuver

Bird Strike Upper Surface Skin/Stringers

Structural Considerations Balanced Maneuver
Durability/Damage Tolerance
Positive Maneuver
Abrupt Elevator
Lightning Strike
• External loads (pressures/inertia) Negative Maneuver minimum skin thickness
• Durability/Damage Tolerance
• Crash
• Failed Refueling Valve
• Hail and bird strike
• Lightning strike Failed Refuel
Stall Buffet
Valve
• Material utilization Negative Gust
3G Side Load
Abrupt Up Elevator
Crash
Internal Loads/Load Paths
• Aircraft structure is designed to be light weight
=> Typically very thin gage
• Members are arranged to carry loads efficiently
(in-plane)
• shear webs
• axial members
• Out-of-plane loads are carried to redistribution
members where the loads are converted to in-
plane components

Stiffened Skin Panel

Built-Up Spar

Body Panel
 Internal Loads/Load Paths
So how do we get internal members to carry loads efficiently?

Lift

CG
Drag

Thrust
Balance Moment
Load
Weight
• Consider all load conditions and requirements
• Develop a static load balance for each critical condition
– Apply loads realistically Do this for local
loads as well as for
– Determine where they are going to be balanced general vehicle
• Cut sections to determine local internal loads loads
• Provide a path for the loads to follow
(Load will follow stiffest path!)
Note: Most members serve more than one function
Internal Loads/Load Paths
• Primary Structural Components are fuselage, wing, and tail
(horizontal and vertical stabilizers)
• Fuselage consists of skins, longerons, and frames
• Wing and Stabilizers consist of covers, spars, and ribs

Ribs

What do these
members do?

Frames

Spars

Longerons
 Internal Loads/Load Paths - Fuselage
Consider fuselage to act as a beam
For a downward tail load, body will
Bending moment is carried carry a shear and a bending moment
based on Mc/I distribution

11.5" 11.5"
2000 2000 Crown longerons and skin
1 1'
2 2' carry tension loads due to
3 3'
bending moment
4 4'
5 5'
z
6 6'
y
7 7'
8 8' Skins carry shear load in-
9 9' plane with VQ/I distribution
10 10'
11 11'
Lower longerons (with effective skin)
Bruhn Section 21.12 (Fig A21.62) carry compression axial loads due to
-16.57
0. 16.57
31.82
bending moment
-31.82
-57.22 57.22

-66.62 66.62

z
-71.32 71.32
y

-66.62 66.62
-57.22
-31.82
57.22
Keel Beam added to restore load path on lower
31.82
-16.57 0. 16.57
surface (wing carry through and wheel well areas)
Bruhn Figure A21.62
Internal Loads/Load Paths - Fuselage
Crown Panel d
d

h
h

Stringer System
Longeron System
d>h
d<h

Longerons (stringers)
carry axial loads

Skins carry shear, torsion

and tension
Frames provided to reduce
longeron column length

Frames also support cargo floor and passenger Floor beams tied to frames
floor beams (react end loads into skins as shear)
(react vertical load) and to a
longitudinal beam to react
Seat rails run fore-aft and are supported by floor beams forward loads (landing and
crash)
Internal Loads/Load Paths - Fuselage

Body skins also carry

external and compartment
pressures as a membrane.

For duel-lobe configurations, longitudinal beam

(crease beam) and floor beams react out-of-plane
load component at lobe intersection
Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer

Internal structure consists primarily of Covers, Spars, and Ribs

Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
Wing acts like cantilevered beam
under distributed pressure loading.
Shear, Moment, and Torsion (about
elastic axis) are beamed to fuselage
and balance tail load, inertia, and
other side wing load.

T V
Elastic Axis

M
T
V
Typical VMT for Horizontal Stabilizer

250

Shear (10^3 lbs), Moment (10^5 in-

200

lbs), Torsion (10^5 in-lbs)

150
Shear (V)
100 Moment (M)
Torsion (T)
50

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
-50
Percent Semispan
 Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
Main Types of Wing Primary Structure

Thin Skin ( many stringers and ribs) Thick Skin ( many spars, few ribs)
Transports & Bombers Fighters
• Deep Sections Section Bending Moments • Thin Sections
• Skin Supported by • Unstiffened Skins
Stringers Carries • Skin and Spar
Bending Moments Chords Carry
Bending Moment

Stringers would
not be efficient

Section Shear Flow

28.3 6.44
7.7 4.71
10.0 17.4 5.53 1.84

51.9 23.3 11.23 18.81 18.92 18.51 7.74

10.0 17.4 5.53 1.84

28.3 7.7 6.44 4.71

Spar Webs Carry Shear (V)

Vz = 1000 lbs Vz = 1000 lbs
Shell Carries Torque (T)
Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
External + Internal Pressures + Inertia
Effective Area
Stringer

Ribs Covers
bs

Rib

Pressure + Inertia Loads Effective Area for Pressure Loads

Pseg i
Prib = Pseg i * (sin 2 - sin 1) i 2
P P
Segment 1
L1 Q L2
Pseg i Rib
P Q P Mid-span
between ribs
Prib i

Mid-span 1, 2 are the “as built” angles

Q = PM (L1 + L2) Rib between ribs Pseg i is load at ribi
EI 2

Crushing Loads on a Rib Built-In Curvature Loads

Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
Internal + External Pressure, Inertia, Ribs redistribute pressure and inertia
Curvature, and Crushing Loads
1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.2 1.0 .8
loads into cellular box structure.
.7 1.0 1.3 1.6 .6 .4 qt
5" qv

V=19,200 #
15" 10"
18" 21"
T=47,000 in-#

6.67"
.1 .3 .3 .1
.6 .9 .9 .6 .6
60"
Loads at Shear Center Balanced by Shear Flows
a. Applied Rib Loads (Load in 103 lbs)

2.6 3.3 3.0 2.4 1.6 q=395 #/in

q=-435 #/in
1.2 .7

2.448"
T=47,000 in-#
S.C.
Q=9275#
Q=8554# q=475 #/in
V=19,200 # 19,200 #

q=-515 #/in
.2 .6 .2
.6 1.1 .9 .8 q=383 #/in
q=-423 #/in
b. Loads Resolved to Stiffeners and Reacted at Shear Center

Calculated Shear Flow Balance - Stiffened Skin

 Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
Ribs
• React and distribute air/fuel pressure Shear Tied Rib
loads FLOOR FITTING
FLOOR FITTING
FLOOR FITTING

FLOOR FITTING

• React panel crushing loads

• React curvature loads
• Maintain wing/stabilizer chordwise
contour MACHINED RIB Up
FORWARD FITTING
•
AFT FITTING
Limit skin or skin/stringer column Aft

length
• React Local Concentrated Loads
• Landing gear Intermediate Rib
• Power plant Rear Spar Spar Tie
Stringer Tie Front Spar

• Fuselage attachments
• Ailerons
• Flaps
• Lift devices
• May Act as Fuel Boundaries
 Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
Emergency Landing (Crashworthy) Fuel Loads Rib 2

If the time ‘T’ for fuel to flow from the upstream

side of the barrier to fill a volume of air defined
in the 1g flight condition is greater that 0.5
second, the internal baffle can be considered to Rib 8
be a solid pressure barrier.

Conversely, an internal baffle may not be 136.3" 83.0"

considered as a pressure boundary if the
volume of air in the fuel cell downstream of the 219.3"
barrier is not adequate to meet the above P = 0.34 * K * L (6.5 pound/gallon fuel density)
criteria. In such cases, the pressures due to the
hydrostatic fuel head must be calculated Where: P = design pressure at location ‘a’; L = reference
without consideration of this internal baffle. distance, feet, between the point of pressure and the
farthest tank boundary in the direction of loading; K is
defined in the table.
Fuel Loading - Roll Rate Loading Condition
Forward 9
K

Aft 1.5
Inboard 1.5
Outboard 1.5
 F = Mr2 Downward 6
r Upward 3


F = Mr

 = angular acceleration
 = angular velocity
Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
Ribs redistribute concentrated loads into cellular box structure.

Concentrated Loads Engine Pylon

• Landing Gear Front Spar

• Power Plant Wing Elastic Axis

• Fuselage Attachments
• Ailerons
• Flaps PP C.G.

• Lift devices
 Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
3 Basic Types of Spars
Spars are Primarily Shear Beams Fuel Loads Upright or Rib Post

Bird Strike
• Carry Wing Shear Loads Cost
• With Covers, Carry Torsion
• React Local Concentrated Loads Web

Chord

Stiffened Web
• May Also Act as Fuel Boundaries
Exception to Thin Section
in-plane Fuel Pressures
Fighter Wing
shear loading
Sinewave

Rib Post

L wmax = (bs1/2 + bs2/2) * p

bs1/2 + bs2/2 Strut

Chord

Truss Beam
Access
bs1
 Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
Web Type Spar
5.0" (5 PL)

Most Common Type

Chords: Struts/Posts:
(Usually Diagonal Tension) Area =0.6 in
2
Area =0.45 in
2

Light Weight/Low Cost q1 q2 q3 20.0" Iy =.20 in

4
Iy =.06 in
4

Simple Internal Loads Web: q1 = 200 lbs/in

Poor Access t =0.1 in q2 = 200 lbs/in

q3 = 500 lbs/in
Moderate to High Assembly Cost Example Geometry and Applied Loads

Upper Chord
13000 9500 6000 2500 0
17500
Upper Sill

L1

q = 900 q= 900 q= 700 q= 700 q= 700 q= 500

L2
Lower Sill

Lower Chord
q(applied) = 500
q(applied) = 200 q(applied) = 200

Framed Out Access Hole 17500 13000 9500 6000 2500 0

Web Type Spar

For a shear beam,

q = V/h (web shear flow)
P = M/h (chord load)
h = Distance between chord centroids
 Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer
Simple Truss 17,500 13,000 9500
14,000
9500 9500 2,500 2,500 2,500

0 10,307 10,000
Eccentricity Issues 14,431 14,431 14,431

q(applied) =500 lbs/in

Less Simple Joint Loads q(applied) =200 lbs/in

Simple Assembly q =900 lbs/in q =900 lbs/in q(applied) = 200 lbs/in

Good Access

14,431 14,431
14,431 10,307
0
4,000
0
17,500 13,000 13,000 6,000 6,000 6,000 0

Chord Centroidal Axis Simple Truss

Strut Centroidal Axis

640 640 1,294 87
1,727 1,473 3,871
17,500 14,970 9,514 9514 9514 9514 2,676 2,676 1,985 2,420 2489
2,489
87
Line Up Loads! 14,000
11,014
4,926
640 1,727 640
212
2,600
12,974
1,294 1,207
155
8,936

155 187 119 1339

2,210 179 1,827
13,657 1,908 9,151
q(applied) =200 lbs/in
1,081
2165
q =900 lbs/in q =900 lbs/in q(applied) = 200 lbs/in q(applied) =500 lbs/in
1,361
Fixed End Truss 1872
155
2,210

1,775
1,844
179 1763
13,657 187 9,151
11,014 12,974 1064
Complicated Internal Loads 0
2,712 3,877 163
212
609 163 609 1,422
2,793
119
1763
155

12,336 5,996 1064 155

Complex Joint Loads 17,500 13,000 12,336 9,685 5,996 205 5,996 163
5,996 155 1064
3558
Low Assembly Cost 2,712 163

Good Access Truss with Full Fixity at Ends of Struts

Internal Loads/Load Paths - Wing/Stabilizer

Stiffened Skin
(many ribs)

Shear Tied Ribs @

Concentrated Load
Locations
Internal Loads/Load Paths - Arrangement

This Slide Intentionally Left Blank

See Class Handout
Internal Loads/Load Paths - Arrangement
Longeron System
(d < h)
Wing Fold

Frames @ Direction
Changes in Load
Carrying Members

Multi-Spar
(unstiffened
skins, few ribs)

Frames @ Concentrated
Load Points
 Internal Loads/Load Paths - Arrangement
Longeron System
(d < h)

Wing Fold

Stub Ribs

Dielectric material

Multi-Spar
(unstiffened
skins, few ribs)

Frames @ Concentrated
Load Points
Internal Loads/Load Paths - Arrangement
No Fuselage, No Vertical Stabilizer

Ribs @ Concentrated Load Points

Deep Section
Stiffened Skins
(many ribs)
Internal Loads/Load Paths - Arrangement
Two Structural Boxes
Forward
Structural
Box

Aft Structural Box

Big Hole in the Middle

Aircraft Structural Considerations
Now you have
• Developed a Configuration to Address the Requirements,
Criteria, & Objectives
• Provided Internal Load Paths
• Developed the Internal Loads

What’s Next?

Conduct Analysis & Sizing

• Identify Internal Loads for Each Part
• Balance Loads & Reactions (free body diagrams)
• Develop Shear, Moment, and Axial Loads (and diagrams)
• Conduct Analyses/Sizing using Appropriate Loads, Methods, and
Allowables
Note: “Aircraft Materials”
Certification and “Design Validation
• Tests
Testing” will be the
• Reports
subjects of future lectures
 Internal Load Balance
In-Plane Load Balance

Web shear flows and stiffener loads

were developed for each load
condition

91 115 38 65 54 36 115 107

-259 -451 -441 -597 432 389 557
-420 420
134 60 41 -11 18 48 67 138
Fore-aft stiffener
1875 439 440 675 676 689 451 452 1942
loads (lbs)

7.45" 156 60 41 -11 18 18 48 67 86 165 Shear

79
flow
(lbs/in)

2482 582 583 893 895 909 596 597 2566

Lateral stiffener
54
47 47 60 41 -11 18 48 67
2279
54 loads (lbs)
1890 367 -861 -1767 -2085 -955 -245 760
-103 103

759 372 294 216 97 22 143 223 302 832

Internal Load Balance
Load Balance:
• Normal Pressures
• In-Plane Components p = Pressure (psi)

wmax = 7.475p lbs/in

23.1p lbs 23.1p lbs

104.9p lbs
88.4p lbs 58.61 in

88.4p lbs

V
Develop shear,
moment, axial, 104.9p lbs
and torsion
M = 1665p in- lbs
diagrams

M
Analysis Methods
Most Methods are Unique to Aerospace Industry and are Semi-empirical
• Diagonal Tension
– Forced Crippling
– Permanent Buckling
– Gross Allowable Web Stress (Shear Rupture)
– Secondary Bending Moments
• Lightening Holes/Flanged Holes
• Beaded Shear Panels Most Static Load
• Local Buckling Critical Structure
• Crippling is Stability Driven
• Effective Width of Buckled Sheet
• Sheet Wrinkling
• Buckling in Bending
– Formed members with or w/o attached skin
– Extruded members with or w/o attached skin
• Tension Fittings/Clips
• Lugs
• Joggles
• Bearing/Bypass Interaction @ Fastened Joints
• Effects of Defects
Analysis Methods
Methods Generally Developed from:
• NACA Tests and Reports
• IRAD and CRAD Tests/Studies
• Experience/Lessons Learned
Each Company Has its own Methods
Manuals
Preliminary Sizing - CT Horizontal Stabilizer
Main Box Cover Panel
CONSTRAINTS bS bA

• C/S Depth
• Skin min gage (.08”fuel areas or .05” other) tOpad tO
tA
• Stringer attach flange width (e/d & clearance) tF
H

• Minimum stringer machining gage (.05”)

tF
• Producibility bF

STATIC CHECKS ( Each Stringer; Each Rib Bay)

• Crippling
• Johnson-Euler Column (Axial Compression) Fixity Coefficient C = 1
• Johnson-Euler Column (Axial Compression) + Shear C = 1
• Flexure (pressure acting singularly, C = 4)
• Beam Column (C = 4)
• Skin Stability between stringers (compression + shear) @ Cruise
• Preliminary D/DT Cutoff
• Flexure-Torsion Mode Stability
• Pure Torsion Mode Stability
 Preliminary Sizing - CT Horizontal Stabilizer
Front Spar
CONSTRAINTS wb w1 w2

• Standard sheet thicknesses

• Minimum chord machining gage (.08”) t2 = t av g w3
t1
• Upright attach flange thickness
t3
• Upright and chord attach flange widths wa

• Shear stability limits (80% DLL in wet areas)

STATIC CHECKS (Each Bay)
• Webs/Uprights • Chords
- Net shear - Crippling
- Shear rupture - Maximum compression
- Bearing - Column stability
- Fastener shear - Net tension
- Uprt/Chd net shear + tension - D/DT cutoff
- Irequired
- Forced crippling
- Upright column
- Upright flexure
Aircraft Structural Considerations
Now you have
• Developed a Configuration to Address the Requirements,
Criteria, & Objectives
• Provided Internal Load Paths
• Developed the Internal Loads

Conducted Analysis & Sizing

• Identified Internal Loads for Each Part
• Balanced Loads & Reactions (free body diagrams)
• Developed Shear, Moment, and Axial Loads (and diagrams)
• Conducted Analyses/Sizing using Appropriate Loads, Methods,
and Allowables

Cycle would be iterated 1 - 3 times.

Certification
• Tests
• Reports
 Preliminary Sizing
Considering How Little Time You Have, What Can You Do?
• Develop External Loads
• Provide Good Internal Load Paths
z
y

• Develop the Internal Loads at a Few Locations

• 2 Body Cuts
• Mc/(Ad2)
• Vq/(Ad2) or V/(h)
• T/(2Aencl) h V/(2h)
z
y
V/(2h)

• 2 Wing Cuts Aencl is enclosed area

• M/h Cover Axial Loads
• Split V between spars q = T/(2Aencl)

(balance about SC or centroid) T

S.C.
• T/2Aencl Assume covers and outer
spars carry all torsion V - Va/L V Va/L

• Size to Cut-Off Ultimate Stress or Strain a

• Aluminum 40 ksi (compression) L

40 ksi (tension)
• CEP .004 in/in (compression) Aencl h

.0045 in/in (tension)

• Assume Shear Resistant for Shear and Torsion
• Fighter Covers no Buckling at Ultimate