NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC
 THE PROBLEM

If I drink coffee then I will be

awake all night.

I was awake all night

Therefore, I drank coffee.

IS THIS A
VALID
ARGUMENT?
Let us Begin

How did you learn

• To read
• To add
• To run
• To write a paper
 Mathematics as language

A LANGUAGE is a systematic means of communicating by

the use of sound or conventional symbols. It is the code
we all use to express ourselves and communicate to
others.
 Mathematics as language
• ENGLISH LANGUAGE MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE (Algebra)

• Symbols: English Letters Symbols: English Letters/ Arabic Numerals

• Vowels and Consonants Variables and Constants

Term

• Words
Algebraic Expressions

• Phrases
Mathematical statements: Equations,
Inequalities, etc
• Sentences
Elements of the Mathematical Language

•  
 TERMINOLOGIES
• A proposition is a declarative statement
which is either TRUE (T or 1) or FALSE (F or
0). Cannot be both True and False at the same time.

• A propositional variable represents a

proposition with an undetermined value.

TRUE (T)
P
FALSE (F)
 Example 1: Proposition

•A.  All cows are brown.

B. The Earth is farther from the Sun than
Venus.
C. Manila is the capital city of China.
D.
E. when .
 Example 2: Not Propositions

•A.  Look out!

B. How far is it to the next town?
C.
D. The garden looks great.
E. Blue looks good on James.
 TERMINOLOGIES

• Propositions and
propositional variables
are combined to form
logical operators.
 Negation of a Proposition
• The
  negation of a proposition is generally
formed by introducing the word “not”.
• The negation of a proposition is denoted by
and is read as “not ”.
 

P P
T F
F T
Example 3: Negation of a Proposition

1.
•   : It will rain today.
: It will not rain today.
2. : John has a pet dog.
: John does not have a pet dog.
3. : Angelyn passed the course.
: Angelyn failed the course.
 Two Propositional Variables

P Q P Q
TRUE (T) T T
TRUE (T)
FALSE (F) T F
TRUE (T) F T
FALSE (F)
FALSE (F) F F
 Conjunction
•  The proposition “ and ”, denoted , is called
the conjunction of and .
• This compound proposition is true only when
both propositions are true.
• Existence of a false value would result to a
false value of the conjunction.
 TRUTH TABLE: CONJUNCTION
• Jerald
P:   got at least 2.0 in all courses enrolled last trimester.
Q: Jerald got a GPA of at least 3.0 last trimester.
: Jerald got at least 2.0 in all courses enrolled and a GPA of
at least 2.9 last trimester.

P Q
 
𝑷 ∧𝑸
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
 Example 4: Conjunction
•   : John has no absences.
: John passed the course.
: John has no absence and passed the
course.
P Q 𝑷 ∧𝑸 

T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
 Disjunction
• The
  proposition “ or ”, denoted by , is called
the disjunction of or .
• This proposition is false only when both
propositions are false.
• Existence of a true value would result to a
true value of the disjunction.
 TRUTH TABLE: DISJUNCTION
• Mark
P:   is assigned by his teacher to compete.
Q: Mark passed the qualifying exam to compete.
: Mark is assigned by his teacher to compete or passes the
qualifying exam to compete.

P Q
 
𝑷 ∨𝑸
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
 Example 5: Disjunction
•   : Carla is in the library.
: Carla is watching a concert.
: Either Carla is at the library or Carla is
watching a concert .
P Q
 
𝑷 ∨𝑸
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
 Implications or Conditionals
• The
  proposition “If , then .”, denoted by is
called an implication or a conditional. Also
read as “ implies .”
• Proposition is the hypothesis while
proposition is the conclusion.
 Implications or Conditionals
•Other
  ways to state
 TRUTH TABLE: CONDITIONAL
•  Anton is a dean’s lister.
P:
Q: Anton receives a gift from his parents.
: If Anton is a dean’s lister then he receives a gift from his
parents.

P Q
 
𝑷 ⇒𝑸
T
 
⇒T T
T  
⇒F F
F  
⇒T T
F  
⇒F T
 Example 6: Implications
•: The
  given number is divisible by 6.
: The given number is divisible by 3.
: If the given number is divisible by 6, then the
given number is divisible by 3.
P Q
 
𝑷 ⇒𝑸
T
 
⇒T T
T  
⇒F F
F  
⇒T T
F  
⇒F T
 Biconditionals

•• The
  proposition “ if and only if ”,
denoted by is called a biconditional.
It also means “ is equivalent to ”

• This proposition is also the

conjunction of two conditionals: .
 TRUTH TABLE:
BICONDITIONALS
•  Sonia is an adult.
P:
Q: Sonia is at least 18 years of age.
: Sonia is an adult if and only if she is at least 18 years of
age.

P Q
 
𝑷 ⇔𝑸
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
 Example 7: Biconditionals
:• The
  given number is even.
: The given number is divisible by 2.
: The given number is even if and only if the
given number is divisible by 2.
P Q
 
𝑷 ⇔𝑸
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
 Summary: Operators and Truth
Value

T T T T T T F
T F F T F F F
F T F T T F T
F F F F T T T
 Related Conditionals
Consider
•   the conditional .
• The converse of this conditional is .
• The contrapositive of this conditional is .
• The inverse of this conditional is .
 Related Conditionals
•  If the given number is divisible by 6, then the
given number is divisible by 3.
• The converse, : If the given number is divisible by
3, then the given number is divisible by 6.
• The contrapositive,:If the given number is not
divisible by 3, then the given number is not
divisible by 6.
• The inverse, If the given number is not divisible
by 3, then the given number is not divisible by 6.
 Related Conditionals
Question: Which among the related
conditionals is/are equivalent to the original
conditional?
 Related Conditionals
•  If the given number is divisible by 6, then the
given number is divisible by 3.
• The converse, : If the given number is divisible by
3, then the given number is divisible by 6.
• The contrapositive,:If the given number is not
divisible by 3, then the given number is not
divisible by 6.
• The inverse, If the given number is not divisible
by 6, then the given number is not divisible by 3.
Is a conditional equivalent to its converse?

P Q
 
𝑷 ⇒𝑸 Q P
 
𝑸⇒ 𝑷
T T T T T T
T F F F T T
F T T T F F
F F T F F T

NOT EQUIVALENT!
 Is a conditional equivalent to its
contrapositive?

P Q
 
𝑷 ⇒𝑸  
Q
 
P ¬𝑸 ⇒¬ 𝑷
 

T T T F F T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T

EQUIVALENT!
Is a conditional equivalent to its inverse?

P Q
 
𝑷 ⇒𝑸 ¬ P¬Q ¬ 𝑷 ⇒¬ 𝑸
     

T T T F F T
T F F F T T
F T T T F F
F F T T T T

NOT EQUIVALENT!
 Summary: Related Conditionals
converse inverse
P Q
 
𝑷 ⇒ 𝑸𝑸⇒ 𝑷 ¬𝑸 ⇒¬ 𝑷¬ 𝑷 ⇒¬ 𝑸
     

T T T T T T
T F F T F T
F T T F T F
F F T T T T
original contrapositive
 Equivalent Statements
• Conditional:
  “If the given number is divisible
by 6, then the given number is divisible by 3.”
• Contrapositive: “If the given number is not
divisible by 3, then the given number is not
divisible by 6.”
 Example 9a: Truth Value Evaluation

•Find
  the truth value of the given propositions
assuming and are TRUE propositions and
propositions and are FALSE.

T T T T
T T
T
 Example 9b: Truth Value Evaluation

•Find
  the truth value of the given propositions
assuming and are TRUE propositions and
propositions and are FALSE.

T T F T
T F
F T
F
 Truth Tables

• In
  constructing a truth table, the number of
rows is equal to where is the number of
distinct propositional variables.
• For example, if there are 4 propositional
variables, then the truth table will consist of .
 Truth Tables
P Q R P Q R
T T T T
T F T T F
T
T T F T
F F T F F
T F T T
T F F T F
F
F T F F T
F F F F
 Example 10a: Constructing Truth
Tables
Construct
•   the truth table for the given
proposition

P Q ( 𝑷 ∧𝑸 )  ¬𝑷
 
( 𝑷 ∧𝑸 ) ⇔ ¬ 𝑷
 

T T T F F
T F F F T
F T F T F
F F F T F
 Example 10b: Constructing Truth Tables

•Construct
  the truth table for the given
proposition

P Q P
   
¬ 𝑷 ∨𝑸  ( 𝑷 ⇒ 𝑸)⇔ (¬ 𝑷 ∨ 𝑸
 

T T F T T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T
 Example 10c: Constructing Truth
Tables
Construct
•   the truth table for the given
proposition

P Q ¬ ( 𝑷 ∧𝑸 )
      ( 𝑷 ∧𝑸 ) ⇔(𝑸 ∧ 𝑷)
¬

T T F T F
T F T F F
F T T F F
F F T F F
 Types of Propositional Forms

There are three types of propositional forms:

• Contingency
• Tautology
• Contradiction
 Contingency
• A propositional form that is neither a
tautology nor a contradiction is called a
contingency.
• Example 10a is an example of a contingency.
 Tautology

• A propositional form that is true under all

circumstances is called a tautology.
• Example 10b is an example of a tautology.
 Contradiction

• A propositional form that is false under all

circumstances is called a contradiction.
• Example 10c is an example of a contradiction.
 Rules of Replacement
Any of the following logically equivalent
expressions can replace each other wherever
they occur:
Rules of Replacement
Rules of Replacement
Rules of Replacement
Rules of Replacement
 Exercise
•Determine
  whether the following propositions
is a tautology, contradiction or contingency.
 Answer to Exercise
•Determine
  whether the following propositions
is a tautology, contradiction or contingency.

 
𝑷 𝑸
 
( 𝑷 ⇒ 𝑸 )  ( 𝑷 ∧¬𝑸 )  ( 𝑷 ⇒ 𝑸 ) ⇔ ( 𝑷 ∧¬ 𝑸 )
 

T T T F F
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T F F
CONTRADICTION
 Exercise
•Determine
  whether the following propositions
is a tautology, contradiction or contingency.

 
𝑷  𝑸  𝑹 ( 𝑷 ⇒ (𝑸
𝑸) ⇒ ( 𝑹
𝑷)⇒ 𝑹
(  𝑷)⇒ 𝑸 ) ∧ ( 𝑸⇒ 𝑹[ )( 𝑷 ⇒ 𝑸 ) ∧ ( 𝑸 ⇒ 𝑹 ) ]⇔ ( 𝑷 ⇒ 𝑹
TT T T T T T T
TT F T F F F T
TF T F T T F F
TF F F T F F T
FT T T T T T T
FT F T F T F F
F F T T T T T T
F F F T T T T T
CONTINGENCY
 Reference and Photo Credit
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