13ME929

NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

(Core Elective For 3rd Yr. Mech. Students)

By
Prof. S.SENTHIL MURUGAN,
Assistant Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Mepco Schlenk Engineering College (Autonomous), Sivakasi

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 Units
• 1- Introduction
• 2- Liquid Penetrate and Magnetic Particle Tests
• 3- Thermography and Eddy Current Testing (ET)
• 4- Ultrasonic Testing (UT), and Acoustic
Emission(AE)
• 5- Radiography (RT)

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 Unit-3
• In electromagnetic spectrum, temperature
increases from the violet region of the
spectrum to red region and beyond.

Region beyond
red is called
infrared region
0.1λ (mm)- 102 λ 3
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How it detects defects? (ref: C G K Nair page-154)
• When an object is irradiated infrared radiation,
it gets heated and heat flows on the surface or
through the thickness of object from warmer to
the cooler region.
• This results in temperature variation and is
related to pattern of heat flow.
• Transfer of heat energy continues from warmer
to cooler region, till equilibrium is reached. This
energy is detected and monitored by infrared
cameras.
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• Flow of heat is affected by factors such as:
density, specific heat, thermal conductivity,
diffusivity, surface finish, surface cleanliness,
voids, inclusions, metallurgical anomalies and
process parameters related to fabrication of
the object.
• Using infrared as an NDE tool involves
measuring or mapping of surface
temperature, which leads to the detection of
defects on the materials, in-homogeneity/
anomalies.
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Thermography application:
• Testing and evaluation of furnaces, ovens,
cryogenic tanks, bearings, heat exchangers,
process controls, entrapment of water or fuel
in honeycomb structures,
• detection of over-heating in electrical devices
• detection of corrosion, fatigue cracks and poor
soldering in space shuttle components.
Advantages:
 system does not require any couplant
 Inspection is fast and interpretation is simple
 Applicable for metals or polymers. 7
Limitation:
• Limited thickness of object can be examined-
Range is limited to 0.8 to 20mm.
• System is inexpensive;
• It is difficult to obtain a uniform heating
system over large areas.
• If there is no change in thermal properties,
defects cannot be detected.

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Thermography (ref: Ravi Prakash pg.115)

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What is Thermography?
 Specimen to be tested is suited is suitably
heated and the resulting temperature
distribution on specimen is studied for finding
flaws. Etc…
How it detects flaws?
• Flaws such as porosities (blow holes or voids),
internal cracks etc.. are entrapped air within
the specimen and thermal conductivity of air
and metallic specimen are widely different.

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Thermography applications (Baldev Raj page 162)
• Converters, furnaces etc..
• Linings in furnaces
• Deposits or blockages in pipe lines carrying fluids
• Power transmission lines and switchyards
• Heat exchangers, pressure vessels etc.
• Insulation of the furnaces and other components
for its effectiveness
• Electronic components

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 Thermographic Inspection
non-contact:
• Infrared imaging (thermography) is a non-
contact optical method where an accurate two-
dimensional mapping of steady or transient
thermal effects is constructed from the
measurement of infrared energy emitted by the
target. 
• Recent advances: in infrared technology,
specifically development of high-density
imaging sensors
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 Real-time infrared image acquisition and
processing allows implementation of advanced
thermographic test methods.
• Selected for the coating inspection
• Depending on the type of defect and thermal
characteristics of a target, an external heating
or cooling is applied in the form of the short
energy pulses. 
This energy pulses can be generated by using
quartz lamps or hot-air heating.

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• Thermal perturbation is then followed by a
differential time-resolved infrared image
analysis.
Coating defects such as blistering and sub-surface
corrosion spots, can be detected in infrared images as
a result of the differences in the thermal diffusivity of
the defective and non-defective areas. 

http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publicatio
ns/PDF/TCS_54_web.pdf

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 Eddy current
What is eddy current?
• Defined as oscillating electrical currents induced
in a conductive material by an alternating
magnetic field, due to electromagnetic
induction. (baldev raj pp33)

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• When magnetic flux through a conductor
changes, induced currents are set up in closed
paths on the surface of conductor. These currents
are in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic
flux and are called eddy current. (C G K Nair, 140)

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 Generation of eddy current
• When an alternating current is passed through a
coil, a magnetic field is set up around it.
• The direction of the magnetic field changes with
each cycle of alternating current.
• If a conductor is brought near this field, eddy
currents are induced in it- eddy parallel to coil
winding.
• Direction of the eddy current changes with a
change in the direction of the magnetic filed
during the cycle of AC.
Cont….. 23
• Induced eddy current produces its
own magnetic field in a direction
opposite to the inducing primary
magnetic field.
• Secondary magnetic field due to the
eddy current interacts with the
primary magnetic field and changes
the overall magnetic field and the
magnitude of the current flowing
through the coil.
• This means that the impedance of
the coil is altered due to the influence
of the eddy current. – during NDT,
changes in impedance are displayed
either on a meter or on a CRT. 24
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 EDDY-Applications
• Is used for sorting materials,
• measurement and control of dimensions of
tubes, sheets and rods
• Coating thickness and for pre-service and in-
service examination of heat exchanger tube for
detection of defects.
• Electrical conductivity
of the materials

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• Factors like temperature, composition, heat
treatment, microstructure, grain size and
mechanical properties influence the
conductivity of material.
How?
In-homogeneities like cracks, inclusions, voids,
scamp, laps, etc…appreciably change the normal
circular eddy current flow pattern and can be
detected by eddy current test coil.
• Discontinuity testing (cracks, dimensional
changes, surface conditions, etc..)

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Eddy current test system/instruments
• System consists of –
- oscillator to provide AC for exciting the test
coil.
- combination of test coil and test object to
generate information in the form of an electrical
signal. Varying the property of the test object
modulates the impedance magnitude of the coil
- signal processing and display.

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Working:
• Oscillator provides AC of the required
frequency to the test coil, which generates and
eddy current in the test object.

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• Test object variables like conductivity,
permeability or discontinuities modulate the
test coil impedance.
• Modulated impedance signal is processed and
displayed over a readout mechanism like
meters, CRT, relays, recorders etc…
Instruments:
There are four basic types of eddy current
instruments that carry out the following
measurements:

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• Measurement of the change in magnitude of the
total impedance of the test coil, regardless of
phase.
• Phase – sensitive measurement, which separates
the resistive and reactive components of the test
coil impedance.
• Measurement of the resistive components of the
test coil impedance.
• Measurement of the inductive component of the
test coil impedance.
• Measurement of the total impedance of the test
coil, regardless of phase
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Sensing element and test arrangements
• Sensing element (test coil) serves as main link
between test instrument and test object.
• It establishes a varying electromagnetic field,
which induces the eddy current in the test
object and increases magnetic effect in
magnetic materials.
• Also senses current flow and magnetic effect
within the test object and feeds information to
the signal analysis system.

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Types:
• Test coils are essentially of 3 types
1. Encircling coil:-
• Test coil is in the form of solenoid into which test part
is placed.
• Test objects is in the form or rods and tubes are
examined conveniently.
• Entire exterior
circumferential surface
of the test object
covered by the coil is
scanned.

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2. coil inside the test object:
• Test coil is in the form of a winding over as
bobbin.
• Coil, thus wound, passes through test objects like
tubes, bolt holes, etc..and scans inner
circumferential surface of the test object.
• This arrangement evaluates
entire internal circumferential
surface at a time, which is not
accessible to any other optical
method of inspection.
• It is not possible to exactly
locate the defect over the
circumference examined. 34
3. Surface coil:
• Test coil is in the form of a spring mounted flat
probe or a pointed pencil-type probe, which
scans the surface of the selected location of the
test object.

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 Limitations
• Only electrically conductive materials can be
inspected.
• To many parameters affect the eddy current
probe impedance, ECT is not effective when
more than one variables are present
• ECT is that it can inspect, with reasonable
sensitivity, metallic components of thickness
upto 6 mm only.

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• EC Signal is more closely related to volume of
the materials lost than to the wall thickness
lost. Hence, evaluations should be made
cautiously.
• Result may need to be verified by an alternate
technique.
• Equipment is costly as compared with MPT.

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Properties of eddy currents

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Common applications
Weld Inspection - Many weld inspections employ ultrasonic NDT for subsurface testing
and a complimentary eddy current method to scan the surface for open surface cracks
on weld caps and in heat affected zones. 

Conductivity Testing - Eddy current testing's ability to measure conductivity can be

used to identify and sort ferrous and nonferrous alloys, and to verify heat treatment. 

Surface Inspection - Surface cracks in machined parts and metal stock can be readily
identified with eddy current. This includes inspection of the area around fasteners in
aircraft and other critical applications. 

Corrosion Detection - Eddy current instruments can be used to detect and quantify
corrosion on the inside of thin metal such as aluminum aircraft skin. Low frequency
probes can be used to locate corrosion on second and third layers of metal that cannot
be inspected ultrasonically. 

Bolt Hole Inspection - Cracking inside bolt holes can be detected using bolt hole
probes, often with automated rotary scanners. 

Tubing inspection - Both in-line inspection of tubing at the manufacturing stage and
field inspection of tubing like heat exchangers are common eddy current applications.
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Both cracking and thickness variations can be detected. 
 Factors effecting eddy currents

The factors which affect eddy currents are:

(a) Conductivity σ (Sigma)
(b) Permeability µ (mu)
(c) Frequency f
(d) Proximity (Lift off/fill factor)
(e) Geometry
(f) Probe Handling
(g) Discontinuities (Defects) 40
 Probe types
• Test coil (probe)
• flat probe or a pointed pencil-type probe
• Absolute coil, differential coil
Absolute coil: the same coil which is used for
both generating the primary field and detecting
the secondary field is called absolute coil.
Differential coil: it is useful to have two coils in
close proximity which are electrically arranged
to be in opposition i.e. wound in opposite
direction.
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• This arrangement reduces the effects, which
affect both coils, Ex.- lift off, materials variation,
temp.
• Signals which affect each coil differently. For
example a crack sensed by one coil at a time,
are enhanced. This arrangement is called
differential coil mode.
Probe selection:-
• Selection of probe is influenced by a no. of
factors, 1. shape of test specimen (sheets,
plates, tubes, rods, wires etc..)
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 • 2. likely distribution of variables affecting eddy
currents and type of information required-
crack detection, conductivity variation,
permeability variation 3. accessibility.
Sl.no. Absolute probe Differential probes
1 Respond to both abrupt and More sensitive to abrupt localised
gradual change in properties and changes
dimensions
2. Prone to drift due to temperature Immune to drift due to
changes temperature changes
3. Interpretation of signals is simple May yield signals difficult to
interpret
4 Can detect the length of defects. Detects only the ends of long
defects
5 Sensitive to probe wobble Less sensitive to probe wobble

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using the conductivity measurement capability of the Olympus NDT N500 series
instruments (N500C or higher). This measurement uses a special conductivity probe.
This measurement is most commonly used to determine the conductivity of a material
but it will also provide the thickness of a coating.

Types of probes:
Eddy current instruments can perform a wide variety of tests depending on the type of
probe being used, and careful probe selection will help optimize performance. Some
common probe types are listed below. 
Surface probes - Used for identifying flaws on and below metal surfaces, usually large
diameter to accommodate lower frequencies for deeper penetration, or for scanning
larger areas. 
Pencil probes - Smaller diameter probes housing coils built for high frequencies for
high resolution of near surface flaws. 
Bolt hole probes - Designed to inspect the inside of a bolt hole. These probes can be
rotated by hand or automatically using a rotary scanner. 
Donut probes - Designed to inspect aircraft fastener holes with fasteners in place. 
Sliding probes - Also used in testing aircraft fastener holes, offering higher scan rates
than donut probes. 
ID probes - Used for inspection of heat exchangers and similar metal tubing from the
inside, available in a variety of sizes. 
OD probes - Used for inspection of metal tubing and bars from the outside, with the
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test piece passing through the coil
Olympus NDT`s standard R/D Tech eddy current probes are available in different configurations:
• Bolt hole probes
• Surface probes, in various shapes and configurations
• Low-frequency Spot and Ring type probes
• Sliding probes
• Wheel probes
• Conductivity probes
Probes used to perform eddy current inspections are made with a copper wire wound to form a
coil. The coil shape can vary to better suit specific applications.
• a-The alternating current flowing through the coil at a chosen frequency generates a magnetic
field around the coil. 
b-When the coil is placed close to an electrically conductive material, eddy current is
induced in the material. 
c-If a flaw in the conductive material disturbs the eddy current circulation, the magnetic
coupling with the probe is changed and a defect signal can be read by measuring the coil
impedance variation. 

Surface preparation is minimal. Unlike liquid penetrant or magnetic particle inspection, it is

unnecessary to remove the paint from the surface to inspect the parts.
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Advantages

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Benefits of Eddy Current Testing:

Eddy current offers the following capabilities: 

• Quick, simple, and reliable inspection technique to detect surface

and near-surface defects in conductive material 

• Can be used to measure material electrical conductivity 

• Measurement of nonconductive coating 

• Hole inspection with the use of high-speed rotating scanner and

surface probe

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The advantages of eddy current testing are:
Sensitivity to surface defects. Able to detect defects of 0.5mm in
length under favourable conditions.
Can detect through several layers. The ability to detect defects in
multi-layer structures (up to about 14 layers), without interference
from the planar interfaces.
Can detect through surface coatings. Able to detect defects
through non-conductive surface coatings in excess of 5mm
thickness.
Accurate conductivity measurements. Dedicated conductivity
measurement instruments operate using eddy currents.
Can be automated. Relatively uniform parts can be inspected
quickly and reliably using automated or semi-automated
equipment, e.g. wheels, boiler tubes and aero-engine disks.
Little pre-cleaning required. Only major soils and loose or uneven
surface coatings need to be removed, reducing preparation time.
Portability. Portable test equipment is very small and light, some of the latest
equipment being as small as a video cassette box and weighing less than 2kg 51 .
The disadvantages of eddy current testing are:
• Very susceptible to magnetic permeability changes. Small
changes in permeability have a pronounced effect on the eddy
currents, especially in ferromagnetic materials. This makes testing
of welds and other ferromagnetic materials difficult but, with
modern digital flaw detectors and probe design, not impossible.
• Only effective on conductive materials. The material must be
able to support a flow of electrical current. This makes testing of
fibre reinforced plastics unfeasible.
• Will not detect defects parallel to surface. The flow of eddy
currents is always parallel to the surface. If a planar defect does
not cross or interfere with the current then the defect will not be
detected.

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Not suitable for large areas and/or complex geometries. Large area
scanning can be accomplished, but needs the aid of some type of
area scanning device, usually supported by a computer, both of
which are not inexpensive. The more complex the geometry
becomes, the more difficult it is to differentiate defect signals from
geometry effect signals.

Signal interpretation required. Due to the many factors which

affect eddy currents, careful interpretation of signals is needed to
distinguish between relevant and non-relevant indications.

No permanent record (unless automated). Normally the only

permanent record will be a paper print out or computer file when
using automated systems.

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Instrumentation

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• Other eddy current testing techniques[edit]
• To circumvent some of the shortcomings of conventional ECT, other eddy current testing techniques were developed with various successes.
• Pulsed eddy current[edit]
• Conventional ECT uses sinusoidal alternating current of a particular frequency to excite the probe. Pulsed eddy current (PEC) testing uses a step function voltage to
excite the probe. The advantage of using a step function voltage is that such a voltage contains a range of frequencies. As a result, the electromagnetic response to
several different frequencies can be measured with just a single step.
• Since depth of penetration depends on the excitation frequency, information from a range of depths can be obtained all at once. If measurements are made in the time
domain (that is, by looking at the strength of the signal as a function of time), indications produced by defects and other features near the inspection coil can be seen
first and more distant features will be seen later in time.[9]
• When comparing PEC testing with the conventional ECT, ECT must be regarded as a continuous-wave method where propagation takes place at a single frequency or,
more precisely, over a very narrow-frequency bandwidth. With pulse methods, the frequencies are excited over a wide band, the extent of which varies inversely with
the pulse length; this allows multi-frequency operation. The total amount of energy dissipated within a given period of time is considerably less for pulsed waves than
for continuous waves of the same intensity, thus allowing higher input voltages to be applied to the exciting coil for PEC than conventional ECT [10]
• One of the advantage of this type of testing is that there is no need for direct contact with the tested object. Testing can be performed through coatings, sheathings, 
corrosionproducts and insulation materials.[11] This way even high-temperature inspections are possible.
• Eddy current array[edit]
• Eddy current array (ECA) and conventional ECT share the same basic working principles. ECA technology provides the ability to electronically drive an array of coils
( multiple coils) arranged in specific pattern called a topology that generates a sensitivity profile suited to the target defects. Data acquisition is achieved by 
multiplexing the coils in a special pattern to avoid mutual inductance between the individual coils. The benefits of ECA are:[12]
• Faster inspections
• Wider coverage
• Less operator dependence — array probes yield more consistent results compared to manual raster scans
• Better detection capabilities
• Easier analysis because of simpler scan patterns
• Improved positioning and sizing because of encoded data
• Array probes can easily be designed to be flexible or shaped to specifications, making hard-to-reach areas easier to inspect
• ECA technology provides a remarkably powerful tool and saves significant time during inspections.[13]
• See also[edit]

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Types of arrangement

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Interpretation/ evaluation

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