Lecture

Presentation

Chapter 12
Thermal
Properties of
Matter

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Suggested Videos for Chapter 12
• Prelecture Videos • Video Tutor Solutions
• The Atomic Model • Thermal Properties of
• Gas-Law Processes Matter
• Heat and Phase Changes

• Class Videos • Video Tutor Demos

• Force and Pressure • Heating Water and
• Energy Transfer by Aluminum
Radiation • Water Balloon Held over
Candle Flame
• Candle Chimneys

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-2

 Suggested Simulations for Chapter 12
• ActivPhysics
• 8.4–8.14

• PhETs
• States of Matter
• Gas Properties
• Blackbody Spectrum
• The Greenhouse Effect

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-3

 Chapter 12 Thermal Properties of Matter

Chapter Goal: To use the atomic model of matter to

explain many properties of matter associated with heat and
temperature.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-4
 Chapter 12 Preview
Looking Ahead: The Ideal Gas
• The high pressure in a car tire is due to the countless
collisions between the air molecules inside and the tire’s
walls.

• You’ll learn how gas properties are related to the

microscopic motion of the gas molecules.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-5
 Chapter 12 Preview
Looking Ahead: Heat and Temperature
• Adding ice cools your drink as heat is transferred from the
warm drink to the cold ice; even more heat is used to melt the
ice.

• You’ll learn how to compute the temperature changes that

occur when heat is transferred or a phase change such as
melting occurs.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-6
 Chapter 12 Preview
Looking Ahead: Thermal Expansion
• Materials expand when heated. The liquid in this thermometer
expands, rising up the glass tube, as the temperature is
increased.

• You’ll learn how the length of a solid object, or the volume of

a liquid, changes with temperature.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-7
 Chapter 12 Preview
Looking Ahead

Text: p. 356

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-8

 Chapter 12 Preview
Looking Back: Heat
• In Section 11.4 you learned about heat and the first law of
thermodynamics. In this chapter we will explore some of the
consequences of transferring heat to or from a system, and
doing work on the system.

• You learned that a system’s energy can be changed by doing

work on it or by transferring heat to it.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-9
 Chapter 12 Preview
Stop to Think

A blender does 5000 J of work on the food in its bowl.

During the time the blender runs, 2000 J of heat transferred
from the warm food to the cooler environment. What is the
change in the thermal energy of the food?

A. +2000 J
B. +3000 J
C. +7000 J
D. –2000 J
E. –3000 J

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-10

 Reading Question 12.1
An atom’s atomic mass number is the number of its

A. Protons.
B. Electrons.
C. Neutrons.
D. Protons + neutrons.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-11

 Reading Question 12.1
An atom’s atomic mass number is the number of its

A. Protons.
B. Electrons.
C. Neutrons.
D. Protons + neutrons.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-12

 Reading Question 12.2
A sample of nitrogen gas is inside a sealed container. The
container is slowly compressed, while the temperature is
kept constant. This is a ________ process.

A. Constant-volume
B. Isobaric
C. Isothermal
D. Adiabatic

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-13

 Reading Question 12.2
A sample of nitrogen gas is inside a sealed container. The
container is slowly compressed, while the temperature is
kept constant. This is a ________ process.

A. Constant-volume
B. Isobaric
C. Isothermal
D. Adiabatic

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-14

 Reading Question 12.3
A sample of nitrogen gas is in a sealed container with a
constant volume. Heat is added to the gas. The pressure

A. Increases.
B. Stays the same.
C. Decreases.
D. Can’t be determined with the information given.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-15

 Reading Question 12.3
A sample of nitrogen gas is in a sealed container with a
constant volume. Heat is added to the gas. The pressure

A. Increases.
B. Stays the same.
C. Decreases.
D. Can’t be determined with the information given.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-16

 Reading Question 12.4
When steam condenses into water,

A. Heat is given off by the water.

B. Heat is absorbed by the water.
C. No heat is given off or absorbed.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-17

 Reading Question 12.4
When steam condenses into water,

A. Heat is given off by the water.

B. Heat is absorbed by the water.
C. No heat is given off or absorbed.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-18

 Reading Question 12.5
The defining equation for calorimetry is

A. ΔQ1 = ΔQ2 = 0
B. Q1 + Q2 = 0
C. ΔT1 + ΔT2 = 0
D. Q = ML

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-19

 Reading Question 12.5
The defining equation for calorimetry is

A. ΔQ1 = ΔQ2 = 0
B. Q1 + Q2 = 0
C. ΔT1 + ΔT2 = 0
D. Q = ML

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-20

 Reading Question 12.6
Which type of heat transfer can happen through empty
space?

A. Conduction
B. Evaporation
C. Convection
D. Radiation

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-21

 Reading Question 12.6
Which type of heat transfer can happen through empty
space?

A. Conduction
B. Evaporation
C. Convection
D. Radiation

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-22

 Section 12.1 The Atomic Model of Matter

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Atomic Model of Matter
• We use the atomic models to illustrate
the three phases of matter: solid,
liquid, and gas.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-24

 The Atomic Model of Matter
• A gas is a system in which each
particle moves freely though space
until, on occasion, it collides with
another particle or the wall.
• In a liquid, weak bonds permit motion
while keeping the particles close
together.
• A rigid solid has a definite shape and
can be compressed only slightly.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-25

 Atomic Mass and Atomic Mass Number
• The atomic mass number A is the sum of the number of
protons and the number of neutrons in an atom.
A = number of protons + number of neutrons
• The atomic mass scale is established by defining the mass
of 21C to be exactly 12 u.
• u is the symbol for the atomic mass unit:
1 u = 1.66  10−27 kg
• Molecular mass is the sum of the atomic masses of the
atoms that form the molecule.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-26

 Atomic Mass and Atomic Mass Number

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-27

 QuickCheck 12.1

What is the mass, in u, of a molecule of carbon dioxide,

CO2?

A. 12
B. 24
C. 32
D. 36
E. 44

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-28

 QuickCheck 12.1

What is the mass, in u, of a molecule of carbon dioxide,

CO2?

A. 12
B. 24
C. 32
D. 36
E. 44

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-29

 The Definition of the Mole
• One way to specify the amount of substance in a system is
to give its mass. Another way is to measure the amount of
substance in moles.
• 1 mole of a substance, abbreviated 1 mol, is 6.02 × 1023
basic particles.
• The basic particle depends on the substance.
• Monatomic gas means that the basic particles are atoms,
such as helium.
• Diatomic gas means the basic particle is a two-atom
diatomic molecule, like O2.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-30

 QuickCheck 12.2

Which contains more molecules, a mole of hydrogen gas

(H2) or a mole of oxygen gas (O2)?

A. The hydrogen
B. The oxygen
C. They each contain the same number of molecules.
D. Can’t tell without knowing their temperatures.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-31

 QuickCheck 12.2

Which contains more molecules, a mole of hydrogen gas

(H2) or a mole of oxygen gas (O2)?

A. The hydrogen
B. The oxygen
C. They each contain the same number of molecules.
D. Can’t tell without knowing their temperatures.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-32

 The Definition of the Mole

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-33

 The Definition of the Mole
• The number of basic particles per mole of a substance is
called Avogadro’s number NA:
NA = 6.02  1023 mol–1
• The number n of moles in a substance containing N basic
particles is

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-34

 The Definition of the Mole
• The molar mass of a substance,
Mmol, is the mass in grams of 1 mol
of substance:

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-35

 QuickCheck 12.3

Rank the following in terms of the number of moles, from

greatest number of moles to least:
a. 20 g of He b. 60 g of Ne
c. 128 g of O2 d. 160 g of Ar
e. 200 g of Pb

A. e>d>c>b>a
B. a>b>c>d>e
C. a>c=d>b>e
D. d>e>b=c>a
E. c>a>b>e>d
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-36
 QuickCheck 12.3

Rank the following in terms of the number of moles, from

greatest number of moles to least:
a. 20 g of He b. 60 g of Ne
c. 128 g of O2 d. 160 g of Ar
e. 200 g of Pb

A. e>d>c>b>a
B. a>b>c>d>e
C. a>c=d>b>e
D. d>e>b=c>a
E. c>a>b>e>d
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-37
 Example 12.1 Determining quantities of oxygen
A system contains 100 g of oxygen. How many moles does
it contain? How many molecules?
SOLVE The diatomic oxygen molecule O2 has molar mass
Mmol = 32 g/mol. From Equation 12.2,

Each mole contains NA molecules, so the total number is

N = nNA = 1.9 × 1024 molecules.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-38

 Volume
• Volume V is an important
property that describes the
amount of space the system
occupies.
• The SI unit of volume is m3.
• It is important to note that
although 1 m = 100 cm, it is
not true that 1 m3 = 100 cm3.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-39

 QuickCheck 12.4

The volume of this cube is

A. 8  102 m3
B. 8 m3
C. 8  10–2 m3
D. 8  10–4 m3
E. 8  10–6 m3

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-40

 QuickCheck 12.4

The volume of this cube is

A. 8  102 m3
B. 8 m3
C. 8  10–2 m3
D. 8  10–4 m3
E. 8  10–6 m3

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-41

 Section 12.2 The Atomic Model of an Ideal Gas

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Atomic Model of an Ideal Gas
• The temperature of an ideal
gas is directly proportional to
the average kinetic energy per
atom Kavg:

• kB is the Boltzmann’s
constant. Its value is

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-43

 The Atomic Model of an Ideal Gas
• The thermal energy of an ideal gas containing N atoms is
the sum of the kinetic energies of the individual atoms:

• For an ideal gas, thermal energy is directly proportional

to temperature:

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-44

 Example 12.2 Energy need to warm up a room
A large bedroom contains about 1 × 1027 molecules of air.
Estimate the energy required to raise the temperature of the
air in the room by 5°C.
PREPARE We’ll model the air as an ideal gas. Equation
12.6 relates the change in thermal energy of an ideal gas to a
change in temperature. The actual temperature of the gas
doesn’t matter—only the change. The temperature increase
is given as 5°C, implying a change in the absolute
temperature by the same amount: ∆T = 5 K.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-45

 Example 12.2 Energy need to warm up a room
(cont.)
SOLVE We can use Equation 12.6 to calculate the amount
by which the room’s thermal energy must be increased:

This is the energy we would have to supply—probably in

the form of heat from a furnace—to raise the temperature.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-46

 Example 12.2 Energy need to warm up a room
(cont.)
ASSESS 100 kJ isn’t that much energy. Table 11.2 showed
it to be less than the food energy in a carrot! This seems
reasonable because you know that your furnace can quickly
warm up the air in a room. Heating up the walls and
furnishings is another story.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-47

 The Atomic Model of an Ideal Gas
• Is it cold in space? The space
shuttle orbits in the upper
thermosphere, about 300 km
above the surface of the earth.
There is still a trace of
atmosphere left at this altitude,
and it has quite a high
temperature—over 1000°C.
Although the average speed of
the air molecules here is high,
there are so few air molecules
present that the thermal energy is
extremely low.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-48
 Molecular Speeds and Temperature
• The histogram shows data
from an experiment that
measures the molecular
speeds in nitrogen gas at
20°C.
• Here the most probable speed
is 500–600 m/s (1200 mph).
Almost 20% of the molecules
are moving at that speed.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-49

 Molecular Speeds and Temperature
• Because temperature is proportional to the average kinetic
energy of the atoms, it is useful to calculate the average
kinetic energy:

• By definition, this is the average of the squares of all the

individual speeds.
• The root-mean-square speed is the speed of an atom with
the average kinetic energy. It is often referred to as the rms
speed and is calculated as

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-50

 Molecular Speeds and Temperature
• We can use the expressions for kinetic energy to relate the
temperature to the speeds of the atoms:

• Temperature must be in kelvin to compute rms speeds.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-51

 Molecular Speeds and Temperature

Text: p. 361
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-52
 QuickCheck 12.5

A rigid container holds both hydrogen gas (H2) and nitrogen

gas (N2) at 100C. Which statement describes their rms
speeds?

A. vrms of H2 < vrms of N2

B. vrms of H2 = vrms of N2
C. vrms of H2 > vrms of N2

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-53

 QuickCheck 12.5

A rigid container holds both hydrogen gas (H2) and nitrogen

gas (N2) at 100C. Which statement describes their rms
speeds?

A. vrms of H2 < vrms of N2

B. vrms of H2 = vrms of N2
C. vrms of H2 > vrms of N2

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-54

 QuickCheck 12.6

An object moving faster than the earth’s escape velocity

(about 11 km/s) has enough energy to escape the pull of the
earth’s gravity. Which of the following gas molecules would
be most likely to be moving at a speed high enough to
escape the earth’s atmosphere?

A. Carbon dioxide
B. Oxygen
C. Nitrogen
D. Water vapor
E. Hydrogen
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-55
 QuickCheck 12.6

An object moving faster than the earth’s escape velocity

(about 11 km/s) has enough energy to escape the pull of the
earth’s gravity. Which of the following gas molecules would
be most likely to be moving at a speed high enough to
escape the earth’s atmosphere?

A. Carbon dioxide
B. Oxygen
C. Nitrogen
D. Water vapor
E. Hydrogen
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-56
 Example 12.3 Speeds of air molecules
Most of the earth’s atmosphere is the gas nitrogen, which
consists of molecules, N2. At the coldest temperature ever
observed on earth, –129°C, what is the root-mean-square
speed of the nitrogen molecules? Does the temperature at
the earth’s surface ever get high enough that a typical
molecule is moving at twice this speed? (The highest
temperature ever observed on earth was 57°C.)

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-57

 Example 12.3 Speeds of air molecules (cont.)
PREPARE You can use the periodic table to determine that
the mass of a nitrogen atom is 14 u. A molecule consists of
two atoms, so its mass is 28 u. Thus the molecular mass in
SI units (i.e., kg) is

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-58

 Example 12.3 Speeds of air molecules (cont.)
The problem statement gives two temperatures we’ll call
T1 and T2; we need to express these in kelvin. The
lowest temperature ever observed on earth is
T1 = 129 + 273 = 144 K; the highest temperature is
T2 = 57 + 273 = 330 K.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-59

 Example 12.3 Speeds of air molecules (cont.)
SOLVE We use Equation 12.11 to find vrms for the nitrogen
molecules at T1:

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-60

 Example 12.3 Speeds of air molecules (cont.)
Because the rms speed is proportional to the square root of
the temperature, doubling the rms speed would require
increasing the temperature by a factor of 4. The ratio of the
highest temperature ever recorded to the lowest temperature
ever recorded is less than this:

The temperature at the earth’s surface is never high enough

that nitrogen molecules move at twice the computed speed.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-61

 Example 12.3 Speeds of air molecules (cont.)
ASSESS We can use the square-root relationship to assess
our computed result for the molecular speed. Figure 12.4
shows an rms speed of 510 m/s for nitrogen molecules at
20°C, or 293 K. Temperature T1 is approximately half of
this, so we’d expect to compute a speed that is lower by
about
which is what we found.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-62

 Pressure
• As particles in the gas move around in a container, they
can bounce off the walls, creating a force on the walls.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-63

 Pressure
• The collisions with the wall
of the bicycle tire create a
force perpendicular to the
tire wall. If the patch is
doubled, then twice as many
particles hit it every second.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-64

 Pressure
• The pressure of the gas is the ratio of the force to the area:

• The SI unit of pressure is the pascal, defined as

• The pressure from the atmosphere at sea level, the standard

atmosphere, is
1 standard atmosphere = 1 atm = 101,300 Pa = 101.3 kPa
• In the U.S., pressure is often expressed in pounds per square
inch, or psi:
1atm = 14.7 psi
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-65
 Pressure
• The net pressure force is
exerted only where there
is a pressure difference
between the two sides of a
surface:

Fnet = F2 − F1 = p2A – p1A

= A(p2 – p1) = A Δp

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-66

 Pressure
• A vacuum is an enclosed
space with p << 1 atm.
• A perfect vacuum would be
p = 0 Pa, but it is impossible
to remove every molecule
from the container.
• The gauge pressure pg is the
difference between the actual
pressure and the atmospheric
pressure.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-67

 QuickCheck 12.10

Two identical cylinders, A and B, contain the same type of

gas at the same pressure. Cylinder A has twice as much gas
as cylinder B. Which is true?

A. TA  TB
B. TA  TB
C. TA  TB
D. Not enough information to make a comparison

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-68

 QuickCheck 12.10

Two identical cylinders, A and B, contain the same type of

gas at the same pressure. Cylinder A has twice as much gas
as cylinder B. Which is true?

A. TA  TB
B. TA  TB
C. TA  TB
D. Not enough information to make a comparison

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-69

 QuickCheck 12.11

Two cylinders, A and B, contain the same type of gas at the

same temperature. Cylinder A has twice the volume as
cylinder B and contains half as many molecules as cylinder
B. Which is true?

A. pA  4pB
B. pA  2pB
C. pA  pB
D. pA  ½ pB
E. pA  ¼ pB
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-70
 QuickCheck 12.11

Two cylinders, A and B, contain the same type of gas at the

same temperature. Cylinder A has twice the volume as
cylinder B and contains half as many molecules as cylinder
B. Which is true?

A. pA  4pB
B. pA  2pB
C. pA  pB
D. pA  ½ pB
E. pA  ¼ pB
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-71
 Example 12.4 Finding the force due to a
pressure difference
Patients suffering from decompression sickness may be
treated in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber filled with oxygen
at greater than atmospheric pressure. A cylindrical chamber
with flat end plates of diameter 0.75 m is filled with oxygen
to a gauge pressure of 27 kPa. What is the resulting force on
the end plate of the cylinder?
PREPARE There is a force on the end plate because of the
pressure difference between the inside and outside. 27 kPa is
the pressure in excess of 1 atm. If we assume the pressure
outside is 1 atm, then 27 kPa is ∆p, the pressure difference
across the surface.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-72
 Example 12.4 Finding the force due to a
pressure difference (cont.)
SOLVE The end plate has area A = (0.75 m/2)2 = 0.442
m2. The pressure difference results in a net force
Fnet = A ∆p = (0.442 m2)(27,000 Pa) = 12 kN
ASSESS The area of the end plate is large, so we expect a
large force. Our answer makes sense, although it is
remarkable to think that this force results from the collisions
of individual molecules with the plate. The large pressure
force must be offset with an equally large force to keep the
plate in place, so the end plate is fastened with stout bolts.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-73

 From Collisions to Pressure and the Ideal-Gas
Law

• Pressure should be proportional to the temperature of the

gas: p  T
• Pressure should be inversely proportional to the volume of
the container: p  1/V
• Pressure should be proportional to the number of gas
particles: p  N
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-74
 From Collisions to Pressure and the Ideal-Gas
Law
• The ideal-gas law relates the pressure, temperature, and
volume of an ideal gas:

• The ideal-gas law can also be written:

• The proportionality constant R is known as the gas

constant:
R = NAkB = 8.31 J/mol ⋅ K
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-75
 From Collisions to Pressure and the Ideal-Gas
Law
• Let’s review the meaning and the units of the various
quantities in the ideal-gas law:

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-76

 Example 12.5 Finding the volume of a mole
What volume is occupied by 1 mole of an ideal gas at a
pressure of 1.00 atm and a temperature of 0°C?
PREPARE The first step in ideal-gas law calculations is to
convert all quantities to SI units:

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-77

 Example 12.5 Finding the volume of a mole
(cont.)
SOLVE We use the ideal-gas law equation to compute

We recall from earlier in the chapter that 1.00 m3 = 1000 L,

so we can write

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-78

 Example 12.5 Finding the volume of a mole
(cont.)
ASSESS At this temperature and pressure, we find that the
volume of 1 mole of a gas is 22.4 L, a result you might
recall from chemistry. When we do calculations using gases,
it will be useful to keep this volume in mind to see if our
answers make physical sense.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-79

 QuickCheck 12.8

The two identical cylinders each have

lightweight pistons on top that are H2 N2
free to move, so the pressure inside
each cylinder is equal to atmospheric Same volumes
pressure. One cylinder contains
hydrogen, the other nitrogen. Both gases are at the same
temperature. The number of moles of hydrogen is

A. Greater than the number of moles of nitrogen.

B. Equal to the number of moles of nitrogen.
C. Less than the number of moles of nitrogen.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-80
 QuickCheck 12.8

The two identical cylinders each have

lightweight pistons on top that are H2 N2
free to move, so the pressure inside
each cylinder is equal to atmospheric Same volumes
pressure. One cylinder contains
hydrogen, the other nitrogen. Both gases are at the same
temperature. The number of moles of hydrogen is

A. Greater than the number of moles of nitrogen.

B. Equal to the number of moles of nitrogen.
C. Less than the number of moles of nitrogen.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-81
 QuickCheck 12.9

The two identical cylinders each have

lightweight pistons on top that are free H2 N2
to move, so the pressure inside each
cylinder is equal to atmospheric Same volumes
pressure. One cylinder contains
hydrogen, the other nitrogen. The mass of gas in each
cylinder is the same. The temperature of the hydrogen gas is

A. Greater than the temperature of the nitrogen.

B. Equal to the temperature of the nitrogen.
C. Less than the temperature of the nitrogen.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-82
 QuickCheck 12.9

The two identical cylinders each have

lightweight pistons on top that are free H2 N2
to move, so the pressure inside each
cylinder is equal to atmospheric Same volumes
pressure. One cylinder contains
hydrogen, the other nitrogen. The mass of gas in each
cylinder is the same. The temperature of the hydrogen gas is

A. Greater than the temperature of the nitrogen.

B. Equal to the temperature of the nitrogen.
C. Less than the temperature of the nitrogen.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-83
 Section 12.3 Ideal-Gas Processes

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Ideal-Gas Processes
• Ideal-gas processes have the following properties:
• The quantity of gas is fixed.
• There is a well-defined initial state. The initial values
of pressure, volume, and temperature will be
designated pi, Vi, and Ti.
• There is a well-defined final state in which the
pressure, volume, and temperature have values pf, Vf,
and Tf.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-85

 Ideal-Gas Processes
The values of the variables in the initial and final states are
related by

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-86

 pV Diagrams
• In a pV diagram, each point on
the graph represents a single,
unique state of the gas.
• An ideal-gas process that
changes the state of the gas can
be represented as a “trajectory.”

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-87

 Constant-Volume Processes
• Warming a gas in a closed container will raise the pressure
without changing its volume. This is an example of a
constant-volume process, where Vf = Vi.
• A constant-volume process appears on a pV diagram as
a vertical line.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-88

 QuickCheck 12.12

The temperature of a rigid (i.e., constant-volume), sealed

container of gas increases from 100C to 200C. The gas
pressure increases by a factor of

A. 2
B. 1.3
C. 1 (the pressure doesn’t change)
D. 0.8
E. 0.5

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-89

 QuickCheck 12.12

The temperature of a rigid (i.e., constant-volume), sealed

container of gas increases from 100C to 200C. The gas
pressure increases by a factor of

A. 2 Temperatures MUST be in K, not

B. 1.3 C, to use the ideal-gas law.
C. 1 (the pressure doesn’t change)
D. 0.8
E. 0.5

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-90

 Example 12.6 Computing the tire pressure on a
hot day
The pressure in a car tire is 30.0 psi on a cool morning when
the air temperature is 0°C. After the day warms up and
bright sun shines on the black tire, the temperature of the air
inside the tire reaches 30°C. What is the tire pressure at this
temperature?

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-91

 Example 12.6 Computing the tire pressure on a
hot day (cont.)
PREPARE A tire is (to a good approximation) a sealed
container with constant volume, so this is a constant-volume
process. The measured tire pressure is a gauge pressure, but
the ideal-gas law requires an absolute pressure. We must
correct for this. The initial pressure is

Temperatures must be in kelvin, so we convert:

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-92

 Example 12.6 Computing the tire pressure on a
hot day (cont.)
SOLVE The gas is in a sealed container, so we can use the
ideal-gas law as given in Equation 12.16 to solve for the
final pressure. In this equation, we divide both sides by Vf ,
and then cancel the ratio of the two volumes, which is equal
to 1 for this constant-volume process:

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-93

 Example 12.6 Computing the tire pressure on a
hot day (cont.)
The units for pf will be the same as those for pi, so we can
keep the initial pressure in psi. The pressure at the higher
temperature is

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-94

 Example 12.6 Computing the tire pressure on a
hot day (cont.)
This is an absolute pressure, but the problem asks for the
measured pressure in the tire—a gauge pressure. Converting
to gauge pressure gives

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-95

 Example 12.6 Computing the tire pressure on a
hot day (cont.)
ASSESS The temperature has changed by 30 K, which is a
bit more than 10% of the initial temperature, so we expect a
large change in pressure. Our result seems reasonable, and it
has practical implications: If you check the pressure in your
tires when they are at a particular temperature, don’t expect
the pressure to be the same when conditions change!

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-96

 QuickCheck 12.19

A sample of gas is in a cylinder with a moveable piston.

The force on the piston can be varied, altering the pressure
and volume. A sample of gas is taken from an initial state
to a final state following a curve on the pV diagram shown.
The final temperature is

A. Higher than the initial

temperature.
B. The same as the initial
temperature.
C. Lower than the initial
temperature.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-97
 QuickCheck 12.19

A sample of gas is in a cylinder with a moveable piston.

The force on the piston can be varied, altering the pressure
and volume. A sample of gas is taken from an initial state
to a final state following a curve on the pV diagram shown.
The final temperature is

A. Higher than the initial

temperature.
B. The same as the initial
temperature.
C. Lower than the initial
temperature.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-98
 Constant-Pressure Processes
• An isobaric process is a constant-pressure process.
• A piston slides to the position where the external pressure and
the gas pressure are equal. As long as the external pressure is
constant, so must be the gas pressure.
• A constant-pressure process appears on a pV diagram as a
horizontal line.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-99

 QuickCheck 12.20

A sample of gas is in a cylinder with a moveable piston.

The force on the piston can be varied, altering the pressure
and volume. A sample of gas is taken from an initial state
to a final state following a curve on the pV diagram shown.
The final temperature is

A. Higher than the initial

temperature.
B. The same as the initial
temperature.
C. Lower than the initial
temperature.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-100
 QuickCheck 12.20

A sample of gas is in a cylinder with a moveable piston.

The force on the piston can be varied, altering the pressure
and volume. A sample of gas is taken from an initial state
to a final state following a curve on the pV diagram shown.
The final temperature is

A. Higher than the initial

temperature.
B. The same as the initial
temperature.
C. Lower than the initial
temperature.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-101
 QuickCheck 12.13

A steady force pushes in the piston

of a well-insulated cylinder. In this
process, the temperature of the gas

A. Increases.
B. Stays the same.
C. Decreases.
D. There’s not enough
information to tell.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-102

 QuickCheck 12.13

A steady force pushes in the piston

of a well-insulated cylinder. In this
process, the temperature of the gas

A. Increases. No heat flows (well insulated) ...

B. Stays the same. ... but work is done on the gas.
C. Decreases. First law: Q + W = ΔEth
D. There’s not enough
information to tell. Work increases the gas’s thermal
energy and with it the
temperature.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-103

 Example 12.7 A constant-pressure
compression
A gas in a cylinder with a movable piston occupies 50.0 cm3
at 50°C. The gas is cooled at constant pressure until the
temperature is 10°C. What is the final volume?
PREPARE This is a sealed container, so we can use
Equation 12.16. The pressure of the gas doesn’t change, so
this is an isobaric process with pi/pf = 1.
The temperatures must be in kelvin, so we convert:

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-104

 Example 12.7 A constant-pressure
compression (cont.)
SOLVE We can use the ideal-gas law for a sealed container
to solve for Vf :

ASSESS In this example and in Example 12.6, we have not

converted pressure and volume units because these
multiplicative factors cancel. But we did convert
temperature to kelvin because this additive factor does not
cancel.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-105

 Example Problem
Your lungs have a volume of approximately 4.0 L. While
visiting the seaside on a chilly 10°C day, you quickly take a
deep breath, all your lungs can hold. The air quickly heats
up to your body temperature of 37°C. Assume that you hold
the volume of your lungs constant, and that the number of
molecules in your lungs stays constant as well. (For a short
time, this is a good approximation. Oxygen molecules go
out, carbon dioxide go molecules go in, but the net flow is
small.) What is the increase in pressure inside your lungs?

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-106

 Constant-Temperature Processes
• A constant-temperature process is an isothermal process.
• A gas cylinder can maintain a constant temperature if
submerged in a larger container with a constant temperature.
• Pushing the piston down would be an isothermal compression;
the reverse would be an isothermal expansion.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-107

 Constant-Temperature Processes

• Because there is an inverse relationship between p and

V, the graph of an isothermal process is a hyperbola.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-108

 Constant-Temperature Processes
• An isotherm is a graph of an isothermal process.
• The location of the isotherm depends on temperature. The
direction along the isotherm depends on the process.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-109

 QuickCheck 12.21

A sample of gas is in a cylinder with a moveable piston.

The force on the piston can be varied, altering the pressure
and volume. A sample of gas is taken from an initial state
to a final state following a curve on the pV diagram shown.
The final temperature is

A. Higher than the initial

temperature.
B. The same as the initial
temperature.
C. Lower than the initial
temperature.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-110
 QuickCheck 12.21

A sample of gas is in a cylinder with a moveable piston.

The force on the piston can be varied, altering the pressure
and volume. A sample of gas is taken from an initial state
to a final state following a curve on the pV diagram shown.
The final temperature is

A. Higher than the initial

temperature.
B. The same as the initial
temperature.
C. Lower than the initial
temperature.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-111
 Example 12.8 Compression air in the lungs
A snorkeler takes a deep breath at the surface, filling his
lungs with 4.0 L of air. He then descends to a depth of
5.0 m, where the pressure is 0.50 atm higher than at the
surface. At this depth, what is the volume of air in the
snorkeler’s lungs?
PREPARE At the surface, the pressure of the air inside the
snorkeler’s lungs is 1.0 atm—it’s atmospheric pressure at
sea level. As he descends, the pressure inside his lungs must
rise to match the pressure of the surrounding water, because
the body can’t sustain large pressure differences between
inside and out. Further, the air stays at body temperature,
making this an isothermal process with Tf = Ti.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-112
 Example 12.8 Compression air in the lungs
(cont.)
SOLVE The ideal-gas law for a sealed container (the lungs)
gives

Notice that we didn’t need to convert pressure to SI units.

As long as the units are the same in the numerator and the
denominator, they cancel.
ASSESS The air has a smaller volume at the higher
pressure, as we would expect. The air inside your lungs does
compress—significantly!—when you dive below the
surface.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-113
 Thermodynamics of Ideal-Gas Processes
• When gases expand, they do work
on the piston.
• If the gas expands under constant
pressure, pushing the piston (with
area A) from xi to xf a distance
d = xf  xi, then the work done is

This can be written as

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-114

 Thermodynamics of Ideal-Gas Processes
• For all ideal-gas processes,
the work is the area under
the pV graph between Vi and
Vf.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-115

 Thermodynamics of Ideal-Gas Processes
• In order for the gas to do work, its volume must change.
No work is done in a constant-volume process.
• The simple relationship of Equation 12.18 applies only to
constant-pressure processes. For any other ideal-gas
process, you must use the geometry of the pV diagram to
calculate the area under the graph.
• To calculate work, pressure must be in Pa and volume in
m3. The product of Pa ( which is N/m2) and m3 is N ⋅ m.
But 1 N ⋅ m is J—the unit of work and energy.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-116

 Thermodynamics of Ideal-Gas Processes
(cont.)
• Wgas is positive if the gas expands (ΔV > 0). The gas does
work by pushing against the piston. In this case, the work
done is energy transferred out of the system, and the
energy of the gas decreases. Wgas is negative if the piston
compresses the gas (ΔV < 0) because the force Fgas is
opposite the displacement of the piston. Energy is
transferred into the system as work, and the energy of the
gas increases. We often say “work is done on the gas,” but
this just means that Wgas is negative.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-117

 Thermodynamics of Ideal-Gas Processes
• The first law of thermodynamics can be written

• Because the thermal energy only depends on its

temperature, we can also write the change in thermal
energy of an ideal gas as

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-118

 Adiabatic Processes
• Adiabatic processes are processes during which heat is
not transferred. In these processes, Q = 0.
• An adiabatic expansion lowers the temperature of a
gas.
• An adiabatic compression raises the temperature of a
gas.
• Adiabatic processes allow you to use work, rather than
heat, to change the temperature of the gas.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-119

 QuickCheck 12.14

A cylinder of gas has a frictionless but

tightly sealed piston of mass M. A small
flame heats the cylinder, causing the piston
to slowly move upward. For the gas inside
the cylinder, what kind of process is this?

A. Isochoric
B. Isobaric
C. Isothermal
D. Adiabatic
E. None of the above
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-120
 QuickCheck 12.14

A cylinder of gas has a frictionless but

tightly sealed piston of mass M. A small
flame heats the cylinder, causing the piston
to slowly move upward. For the gas inside
the cylinder, what kind of process is this?

A. Isochoric
B. Isobaric
C. Isothermal
D. Adiabatic
E. None of the above
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-121
 QuickCheck 12.15

A cylinder of gas has a frictionless but

tightly sealed piston of mass M. The gas
temperature is increased from an initial
27C to a final 127C. What is the
final-to-initial volume ratio Vf /Vi?

A. 1.50
B. 1.33
C. 1.25
D. 1.00
E. Not enough information to tell
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-122
 QuickCheck 12.15

A cylinder of gas has a frictionless but

tightly sealed piston of mass M. The gas
temperature is increased from an initial
27C to a final 127C. What is the
final-to-initial volume ratio Vf /Vi?

A. 1.50 Isobaric, so
B. 1.33 Vf  Tf  400 K
C. 1.25 Vf Tf 300 K
D. 1.00
E. Not enough information to tell
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-123
 QuickCheck 12.16

A cylinder of gas floats in a large tank

of water. It has a frictionless but tightly
sealed piston of mass M. Small masses
are slowly placed onto the top of the
piston, causing it to slowly move
downward. For the gas inside the
cylinder, what kind of process is this?

A. Isochoric D. Adibatic
B. Isobaric E. None of the above
C. Isothermal
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-124
 QuickCheck 12.16

A cylinder of gas floats in a large tank

of water. It has a frictionless but tightly
sealed piston of mass M. Small masses
are slowly placed onto the top of the
piston, causing it to slowly move
downward. For the gas inside the
cylinder, what kind of process is this?

A. Isochoric D. Adibatic
B. Isobaric E. None of the above
C. Isothermal
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-125
 Conceptual Example 12.10 Adiabatic curves on
a pV diagram
FIGURE 12.17 shows the pV diagram of a gas
undergoing an isothermal compression from
point 1 to point 2. Sketch how the pV diagram
would look if the gas were compressed from
point 1 to the same final pressure by a rapid
adiabatic compression.
REASON An adiabatic compression increases
the temperature of the gas as the work done
on the gas is transformed into thermal energy.
Consequently, as seen in FIGURE 12.18, the
curve of the adiabatic compression cuts across
the isotherms to end on a higher-temperature
isotherm when the gas pressure reaches p2.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-126
 Conceptual Example 12.10 Adiabatic curves on
a pV diagram (cont.)
ASSESS In an isothermal compression,
heat energy is transferred out of the gas so
that the gas temperature stays the same.
This heat transfer doesn’t happen in an
adiabatic compression, so we’d expect the
gas to have a higher final temperature. In
general, the temperature at the final point
of an adiabatic compression is higher than
at the starting point. Similarly, an adiabatic
expansion ends on a lower-temperature
isotherm.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-127

 QuickCheck 12.17

What type of gas process is this?

A. Isochoric
B. Isobaric
C. Isothermal
D. Adiabatic
E. None of the above

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-128

 QuickCheck 12.17

What type of gas process is this?

A. Isochoric
B. Isobaric
C. Isothermal
D. Adiabatic
E. None of the above

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-129

 QuickCheck 12.18

A gas follows the process shown. What is the final-to-initial

temperature ratio Tf /Ti?

A. 2
B. 4
C. 8
D. 16
E. Not enough information
to tell

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-130

 QuickCheck 12.18

A gas follows the process shown. What is the final-to-initial

temperature ratio Tf /Ti?

A. 2
B. 4
C. 8
D. 16
E. Not enough information
to tell

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-131

 QuickCheck 12.7

If the volume of a sealed container of gas is decreased, the

gas temperature

A. Increases.
B. Stays the same.
C. Decreases.
D. Not enough information to tell.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-132

 QuickCheck 12.7

If the volume of a sealed container of gas is decreased, the

gas temperature

A. Increases.
B. Stays the same.
C. Decreases.
D. Not enough information to tell.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-133

 Section 12.4 Thermal Expansion

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Thermal Expansion
• Thermal expansion is the
expansion of a material (including
solids) when heated.
• Volume thermal expansion is

• The constant β is the coefficient of volume expansion. Its

value depends on the material of the object and has units
of K–1.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-135

 Thermal Expansion
• Linear thermal expansion is

• The constant α is the coefficient

of linear expansion. Its value
depends on the material of the
object and has units of K–1.
Expanding spans: A long steel
bridge will slightly increase in length
on a hot day and decrease on a cold
day. Thermal expansion joints let the
bridge’s length change without
causing the roadway to buckle.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-136
 Thermal Expansion

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-137

 Thermal Expansion
• The expressions for thermal expansions are empirical
formulas; they are a good fit to data, but not all materials
follow the equations for volume and linear thermal
expansions. Water at low temperatures is one example.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-138

 QuickCheck 12.22

Two rods are precisely 10.000 cm long. Rod 1 is made of

aluminum, with a coefficient of linear expansion
α = 24 × 10–6 /K. Rod 2 is made of steel, and has
α = 12 × 10–6 /K. Rod 1 is heated by 10°C while rod 2 is
heated by 20°C. After heating, which rod is longer?

A. Rod 1
B. Rod 2
C. Both rods have the same length.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-139

 QuickCheck 12.22

Two rods are precisely 10.000 cm long. Rod 1 is made of

aluminum, with a coefficient of linear expansion
α = 24 × 10–6 /K. Rod 2 is made of steel, and has
α = 12 × 10–6 /K. Rod 1 is heated by 10°C while rod 2 is
heated by 20°C. After heating, which rod is longer?

A. Rod 1
B. Rod 2
C. Both rods have the same length.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-140

 QuickCheck 12.23

Aluminum rod 1 is 10.000 cm long, while aluminum rod 2

is 20.000 cm long. Both rods are heated by 20°C. After
heating, which rod has undergone the greatest change in
length?

A. Rod 1
B. Rod 2
C. The lengths of both rods have changed by the same
amount.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-141

 QuickCheck 12.23

Aluminum rod 1 is 10.000 cm long, while aluminum rod 2

is 20.000 cm long. Both rods are heated by 20°C. After
heating, which rod has undergone the greatest change in
length?

A. Rod 1
B. Rod 2
C. The lengths of both rods have changed by the same
amount.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-142

 Example Problem
In the United States, railroad cars ride on steel rails. Until
the mid-1900s, most track consisted of 11.9 m lengths
connected with expansion joints that allowed for the rails to
expand and contract with temperature. If a section of rail is
exactly 11.900 m long on a hot, sunny day when it warms
up to 50°C, how long will it be on a cold –10°C winter
morning?

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-143

 Try It Yourself: Thermal Expansion to the
Rescue
If you have a stubborn lid on a
glass jar, try this: Put the lid under
very hot water for a short time.
Heating the lid and the jar makes
them both expand, but, as you can
see from the data in Table 12.3, the
steel lid—and the opening in the
lid that fits over the glass jar—
expands by more than the glass jar.
The jar lid is now looser and can
be more easily removed.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-144

 Example 12.11 How much closer to space?
The height of the Space Needle, a steel observation tower in
Seattle, is 180 meters on a 0°C winter day. How much taller
is it on a hot summer day when the temperature is 30°C?
PREPARE The steel expands because of an increase in
temperature, which is
∆T = Tf  Ti = 30°C  0°C = 30°C = 30 K

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-145

 Example 12.11 How much closer to space?
(cont.)
SOLVE The coefficient of linear expansion is given in
Table 12.3; we can use this value in Equation 12.22 to
compute the increase in height:
∆L = Li ∆T = (12  106 K1)(180 m)(30 K) = 0.065 m

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-146

 Example 12.11 How much closer to space?
(cont.)
ASSESS You don’t notice buildings getting taller on hot
days, so we expect the final answer to be small. The change
is a small fraction of the height of the tower, as we expect.
Our answer makes physical sense. Compared to 180 m, an
expansion of 6.5 cm is not something you would easily
notice—but it isn’t negligible. The thermal expansion of
structural elements in towers and bridges must be accounted
for in the design to avoid damaging stresses. When
designers failed to properly account for thermal stresses in
the marble panels cladding the Amoco Building in Chicago,
all 43,000 panels had to be replaced, at great cost.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-147

 Special Properties of Water and Ice
• Water differs from other liquids
at colder temperatures.
• Instead of decreasing volume
with decreasing temperature,
water increases in volume at
temperatures below 4°C.
• This happens at lower
temperatures because the water
molecules form clusters that are
more strongly bound but are located
farther apart.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-148

 Special Properties of Water and Ice
• Freezing the water results
in an even greater increase
in volume.
• Because water expands as
it freezes, ice is less dense
than liquid water and floats.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-149

 Section 12.5 Specific Heat and
Heat of Transformation

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Specific Heat
• The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat that
raises the temperature of 1kg of that substance by 1 K.
• The symbol for specific heat is c:

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-151

 Specific Heat

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-152

 Specific Heat
• Substances with a large
specific heat, like
water, are slow to
warm up and slow to
cool down.
Temperate lakes: At night, the large
• Such substances are specific heat of water prevents the
also described as temperature of a body of water from
having a large thermal dropping nearly as much as that of the
inertia. surrounding air. Early in the morning,
water vapor evaporating from a warm
lake quickly condenses in the colder air
above, forming mist. During the day,
the opposite happens: The air becomes
much warmer than the water.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-153
 QuickCheck 12.24

Two liquids, A and B, have equal masses and equal initial

temperatures. Each is heated for the same length of time
over identical burners. Afterward, liquid A is hotter than
liquid B. Which has the larger specific heat?

A. Liquid A
B. Liquid B
C. There’s not enough information to tell.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-154

 QuickCheck 12.24

Two liquids, A and B, have equal masses and equal initial

temperatures. Each is heated for the same length of time
over identical burners. Afterward, liquid A is hotter than
liquid B. Which has the larger specific heat?

A. Liquid A
B. Liquid B
C. There’s not enough information to tell.

Q
T = mc so larger c gives smaller T

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-155

 Example 12.13 Energy to run a fever
A 70 kg student catches the flu, and his body temperature
increases from 37.0°C (98.6°F) to 39.0°C (102.2°F). How
much energy is required to raise his body’s temperature?
PREPARE The increase in temperature requires the
addition of energy. The change in temperature ∆T is 2.0°C,
or 2.0 K.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-156

 Example 12.13 Energy to run a fever (cont.)
SOLVE Raising the temperature of the body uses energy
supplied internally from the chemical reactions of the
body’s metabolism, which transfer heat to the body.
The specific heat of the body is given in Table 12.4 as
3400 J/kg ⋅ K. We can use Equation 12.23 to find the
necessary heat energy:
Q = Mc ∆T = (70 kg)(3400 J/kg ⋅ K)(2.0 K) = 4.8 × 105 J

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-157

 Example 12.13 Energy to run a fever (cont.)
ASSESS The body is mostly water, with a large specific
heat, and the mass of the body is large, so we’d expect a
large amount of energy to be necessary. Looking back to
Chapter 11, we see that this is approximately the energy in a
large apple, or the amount of energy required to walk 1
mile.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-158

 QuickCheck 12.25

1 kg of silver (c = 234 J/kg K) is heated to 100C. It is then

dropped into 1 kg of water (c = 4190 J/kg K) at 0C in an
insulated beaker. After a short while, the common
temperature of the water and silver is

A. 0C
B. Between 0C and 50C
C. 50C
D. Between 50C and 100C
E. 100C

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-159

 QuickCheck 12.25

1 kg of silver (c = 234 J/kg K) is heated to 100C. It is then

dropped into 1 kg of water (c = 4190 J/kg K) at 0C in an
insulated beaker. After a short while, the common
temperature of the water and silver is

A. 0C
B. Between 0C and 50C
C. 50C
D. Between 50C and 100C
E. 100C

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-160

 Phase Changes
• If you place ice cubes in a sealed container and heat the
container, the ice will warm without melting until the
temperature reaches 0°C. As it melts, the temperature of
the ice and liquid remain at 0°C. The temperature does not
begin to rise again until all of the ice is melted. The
process is repeated as the liquid warms and evaporates
into steam.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-161

 Phase Changes
• As you heat the solid, the thermal energy gets so large the
the molecular bonds begin to break, allowing the atoms to
move around; the solid begins to melt.
• The temperature does not rise until all of the bonds are
broken.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-162

 Phase Changes
• The temperature at which a solid becomes a liquid is the
melting point.
• The temperature at which a liquid becomes a solid is the
freezing point.
• Melting and freezing are phase changes. A system at the
melting point is in phase equilibrium.
• The temperature at which a gas becomes a liquid is the
condensation point.
• The temperature at which a liquid becomes a gas is the
boiling point.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-163

 Conceptual Example 12.14 Strategy for cooling
a drink
If you have a warm soda that you wish to cool, is it more effective to
add 25 g of liquid water at 0°C or 25 g of water ice at 0°C?
REASON If you add liquid water at 0°C, heat will be transferred
from the soda to the water, raising the temperature of the water and
lowering that of the soda. If you add water ice at 0°C, heat first will
be transferred from the soda to the ice to melt it, transforming the 0°C
ice to 0°C liquid water, then will be transferred to the liquid water to
raise its temperature. Thus more thermal energy will be removed from
the soda, giving it a lower final temperature, if ice is used rather than
liquid water.
ASSESS This makes sense because you know that this is what you do
in practice. To cool a drink, you drop in an ice cube.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-164

 Heat of Transformation
• A phase change is
characterized by a change
in thermal energy without
a change in temperature.
• The amount of heat energy
that causes 1kg of a
substance to undergo a
Lava—molten rock—undergoes a
phase change is called the phase change from liquid to sold
heat of transformation (L). when it contacts liquid water; the
transfer of heat to the water causes
the water to undergo a phase
change from liquid to gas.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-165

 Heat of Transformation
• The heat of fusion Lf is the heat of transformation
between a solid and a liquid.
• The heat of vaporization Lv is the heat of transformation
between a liquid and a gas.
• The heat needed for these phase changes is

• You must explicitly include the minus sign when it is

needed.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-166

 Heat of Transformation

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-167

 QuickCheck 12.26

If you heat a substance in an insulated container, is it

possible that the temperature of the substance remains
unchanged?

A. Yes
B. No

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-168

 QuickCheck 12.26

If you heat a substance in an insulated container, is it

possible that the temperature of the substance remains
unchanged?

A. Yes If there’s a phase change.

B. No

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-169

 Example 12.16 Melting a popsicle
A girl eats a 45 g frozen popsicle that was taken out of a
10°C freezer. How much energy does her body use to
bring the popsicle up to body temperature?
PREPARE We can assume that the popsicle is pure water.
Normal body temperature is 37°C. The specific heats of ice
and liquid water are given in Table 12.4; the heat of fusion
of water is given in Table 12.5.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-170

 Example 12.16 Melting a popsicle (cont.)
SOLVE There are three parts to the problem, corresponding
to stages 1–3 in Figure 12.22: The popsicle must be warmed
to 0°C, then melted, and then the resulting water must be
warmed to body temperature. The heat needed to warm the
frozen water by ∆T = 10°C = 10 K to the melting point is
Q1 = Mcice ∆T = (0.045 kg)(2090 J/kg ⋅ K)(10 K) = 940 J

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-171

 Example 12.16 Melting a popsicle (cont.)
Note that we use the specific heat of water ice, not liquid
water, in this equation. Melting 45 g of ice requires heat
Q2 = MLf = (0.045 kg)(3.33 × 105 J/kg) = 15,000 J
The liquid water must now be warmed to body temperature;
this requires heat
Q3 = Mcwater ∆T = (0.045 kg)(4190 J/kg ⋅ K)(37 K)
= 7000 J
The total energy is the sum of these three values:
Qtotal = 23,000 J.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-172

 Example 12.16 Melting a popsicle (cont.)
ASSESS More energy is needed to melt the ice than to
warm the water, as we would expect. A commercial popsicle
has 40 Calories, which is about 170 kJ. Roughly 15% of the
chemical energy in this frozen treat is used to bring it up to
body temperature!

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-173

 Example Problem
On a hot summer day, a cup of flavored shaved ice can be a
welcome treat. Suppose you ignore the obvious “brain
freeze” danger and eat an 8 oz (0.22 kg) cup of ice rather
quickly. How much heat is needed to melt this ice and warm
it to your 37°C body temperature?

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-174

 Evaporation
• Evaporation is the process of
some molecules moving from
the liquid to gas phase at
lower temperatures than the
Keeping your cool: Humans (and
boiling point. cattle and horses) have sweat
• At any temperature, some glands, so we can perspire to
molecules are moving fast moisten our skin, allowing
evaporation to cool our bodies.
enough to go into the gas
Animals that do not perspire can
phase, carrying away thermal also use evaporation to keep cool.
energy and reducing the Dogs, goats, rabbits, and even birds
average kinetic energy (and pant, evaporating water from their
temperature) of the liquid. respiratory passages. Elephants
spray water on their skin; other
animals may lick their fur.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-175
 QuickCheck 12.27

50 g of ice at 0C is added to 50 g of liquid water at 0C in a

well-insulated container, also at 0C. After a while, the
container will hold

A. All ice.
B. > 50 g of ice, < 50 g of liquid water.
C. 50 g of ice, 50 g of liquid water.
D. < 50 g of ice, > 50 g of liquid water.
E. All liquid water.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-176

 QuickCheck 12.27

50 g of ice at 0C is added to 50 g of liquid water at 0C in a

well-insulated container, also at 0C. After a while, the
container will hold

A. All ice.
B. > 50 g of ice, < 50 g of liquid water.
C. 50 g of ice, 50 g of liquid water.
D. < 50 g of ice, > 50 g of liquid water.
E. All liquid water.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-177

 Example 12.17 Computing heat loss by
perspiration
The human body can produce approximately 30 g of
perspiration per minute. At what rate is it possible to
exhaust heat by the evaporation of perspiration?
SOLVE The evaporation of 30 g of perspiration at normal
body temperature requires heat energy
Q = MLv = (0.030 kg)(24  105 J/kg) = 7.2  104 J
This is the heat lost per minute; the rate of heat loss is

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-178

 Example 12.17 Computing heat loss by
perspiration (cont.)
ASSESS Given the metabolic power required for different
activities, as listed in Chapter 11, this rate of heat removal is
sufficient to keep the body cool even when exercising in hot
weather—as long as the person drinks enough water to keep
up this rate of perspiration.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-179

 Example Problem
Jason, a 60 kg cyclist, is pedaling his bike at a good clip, using a
total energy of 400 W. As he exercises, his body will start to
warm up, and he will perspire to keep himself cool.
1) Assuming Jason’s pedaling has a typical 25% efficiency, by
how much would his body temperature rise during 1.0 h of
cycling if he had no means of exhausting excess thermal energy?
2) Assume that the only means by which his body cools itself is
evaporation. To keep his body temperature constant, what mass
of water must be evaporated during a 1.0 h ride? What volume
of water must he drink each hour to keep from becoming
dehydrated? (1.0 kg of water has a volume of 1.0 L.)

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-180

 Section 12.6 Calorimetry

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Calorimetry
• Calorimetry is the quantitative measurement of the heat
transferred between systems or evolved in reactions.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-182

 Calorimetry
• In an insulated environment,
the energy transferred to
system 1 (Q1) is positive if
energy enters system 1,
negative if energy leaves
system 1. Q2 is the energy
transferred to system 2.
• The relationship can be written
Qnet = Q1 + Q2 = 0

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-183

 Calorimetry

Text: p. 151
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-184
 Example 12.18 Using calorimetry to identify a
metal
200 g of an unknown metal is heated to 90.0°C, then
dropped into 50.0 g of water at 20.0°C in an insulated
container. The water temperature rises within a few seconds
to 27.7°C, then changes no further. Identify the metal.
PREPARE The metal and the water interact thermally;
there are no phase changes. We know all the initial and final
temperatures. We will label the temperatures as follows: The
initial temperature of the metal is Tm; the initial temperature
of the water is Tw. The common final temperature is Tf . For
water, cw = 4190 J/kg ⋅ K is known from Table 12.4. Only
the specific heat cm of the metal is unknown.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-185
 Example 12.18 Using calorimetry to identify a
metal (cont.)
SOLVE Energy conservation requires that Qw + Qm = 0.
Using Q = Mc(Tf  Ti) for each, we have
Qw + Qm = Mw cw (Tf  Tw) + Mm cm (Tf  Tm) = 0
This is solved for the unknown specific heat:

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-186

 Example 12.18 Using calorimetry to identify a
metal (cont.)
Referring to Table 12.4, we find we have either 200 g of
gold or, if we made an ever-so-slight experimental error,
200 g of lead!
ASSESS The temperature of the unknown metal changed
much more than the temperature of the water. This means
that the specific heat of the metal must be much less than
that of water, which is exactly what we found.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-187

 Section 12.7 Specific Heat of Gases

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Specific Heats of Gases
• The temperature change in a
gas depends on the heating
process.
• Constant-volume processes
require less heat than
constant-pressure processes
because work is not done in
the constant-volume
process.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-189

 Specific Heats of Gases
• We define two different versions of specific heat of gases.
• The quantity of heat needed to change the temperature of n
moles of gas for a constant-volume processes is
Q = nCVΔT
• For a constant-pressure process, the quantity is
Q = nCPΔT
• CV is the molar specific heat at a constant volume.
• CP is the molar specific heat at a constant pressure.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-190

 Specific Heats of Gases
• The monatomic gases have
the same specific heats
because they are close to
ideal.
• The molar specific heats at
constant pressure are higher
because work is done during
those processes.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-191

 Specific Heats of Gases
• The diatomic gases have higher
modal specific heats than the
monatomic gases.
• For monatomic gases, the
thermal energy is exclusively
translational kinetic energy
(atoms move faster).
• For diatomic gases, the molecules also rotate. Some energy
must go into the rotational kinetic energy.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-192

 QuickCheck 12.28

Suppose you have a sample of gas at 10°C that you need to

warm up to 20°C. Which will take more heat energy: raising
the temperature while keep the pressure constant or raising
the temperature while keeping the volume constant?

A. It takes more energy to raise the temperature while

keeping the volume constant.
B. It takes more energy to raise the temperature while
keeping the pressure constant.
C. The heat energy is the same in both cases.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-193

 QuickCheck 12.28

Suppose you have a sample of gas at 10°C that you need to

warm up to 20°C. Which will take more heat energy: raising
the temperature while keep the pressure constant or raising
the temperature while keeping the volume constant?

A. It takes more energy to raise the temperature while

keeping the volume constant.
B. It takes more energy to raise the temperature while
keeping the pressure constant.
C. The heat energy is the same in both cases.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-194

 Example 12.20 Work done by an expanding gas
A typical weather balloon is made of a thin latex envelope
that takes relatively little force to stretch, so the pressure
inside the balloon is approximately equal to atmospheric
pressure. The balloon is filled with a gas that is less dense
than air, typically hydrogen or helium. Suppose a weather
balloon filled with 180 mol of helium is waiting for launch
on a cold morning at a high-altitude station. The balloon
warms in the sun, which raises the temperature of the gas
from 0°C to 30°C. As the balloon expands, how much work
is done by the expanding gas?

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-195

 Example 12.20 Work done by an expanding gas
(cont.)
PREPARE The work done is equal to p∆V, but we don’t
know the pressure (it’s not sea level and we don’t know the
altitude) and we don’t know the volume of the balloon.
Instead, we’ll use the first law of thermodynamics. We can
rewrite Equation 12.19 as
Wgas = Q  ∆Eth

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-196

 Example 12.20 Work done by an expanding gas
(cont.)
The change in temperature of the gas is 30°C, so ∆T = 30 K.
We can compute how much heat energy is transferred to the
balloon as it warms because this is a temperature change at
constant pressure, and we can compute how much the
thermal energy of the gas increases because we know ∆T.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-197

 Example 12.20 Work done by an expanding gas
(cont.)
SOLVE The heat required to increase the temperature of the
gas is given by Equation 12.28:
Q = nCP ∆T = (180 mol)(20.8 J/mol ⋅ K)(30 K) = 112 kJ
The change in thermal energy depends on the change in
temperature according to Equation 12.20:

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-198

 Example 12.20 Work done by an expanding gas
(cont.)
The work done by the expanding balloon is just the
difference between these two values:
Wgas = Q  ∆Eth = 112 kJ  67.3 kJ = 45 kJ
ASSESS The numbers are large—it’s a lot of heat and a
large change in thermal energy—but it’s a big balloon with
a lot of gas, so this seems reasonable.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-199

 Section 12.8 Heat Transfer

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Heat Transfer
• There are four basic
mechanisms by which objects
exchange heat with other
objects or their surroundings.

When two objects are in

direct physical contact, such
as the soldering iron and the
circuit board, heat is
transferred by conduction.
Energy is transferred by
direct contact.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-201
 Heat Transfer
• There are four basic
mechanisms by which
objects exchange heat with
other objects or their
surroundings.
This special photograph shows
air currents near a warm glass of
water. Air near the glass is
warmed and rises, taking thermal
energy with it in a process known
as convection. Energy is
transferred by the bulk motion
of molecules with high thermal
energy.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-202
 Heat Transfer
• There are four basic
mechanisms by which
objects exchange heat with
other objects or their
surroundings.

The lamp shines on the

lambs huddled below,
warming them. The energy
is transferred by infrared
radiation, a form of
electromagnetic waves.
Energy is transferred by
electromagnetic waves.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-203

 Heat Transfer
• There are four basic
mechanisms by which
objects exchange heat with
other objects or their
surroundings.
As we saw in an earlier section,
the evaporation of liquid can
carry away significant
quantities of thermal energy.
When you blow on a cup of
cocoa, this increases the rate of
evaporation, rapidly cooling it.
Energy is transferred by the
removal of molecules with
high thermal energy.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-204
 Conduction
• Conduction is the
transfer of thermal
energy directly through
a physical material.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-205

 Conduction
• Q increases if the temperature
difference ΔT between the hot
end and the cold end is
increased.
• Q increases if the cross-section
area A of the rod is increased.
• Q decreases if the length L of
the rod is increased.
• Some materials (such as
metals) transfer heat quite
readily. Other materials (such
as wood) transfer very little
heat.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-206

 Conduction
• The rate of heat transfer for a material of cross-section
area A and length L is

• k is the thermal conductivity of the material and

characterizes whether the material is a good or poor
conductor of heat. The units of k are W/m ⋅ K.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-207

 Conduction

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-208

 Convection
• Convection is the transfer of thermal
energy by the motion of a fluid.
• When you boil water, the heated water
on the bottom expands, becomes less
dense and rises, while the cooler, denser
water sinks.
• Convection is responsible for making
the wind blow and the ocean currents
circulate.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-209

 Radiation
• Radiation consists of
electromagnetic waves
that transfer energy from
the object that emits the
radiation to the object
that absorbs it.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-210

 Radiation
• The rate of heat transfer by radiation is

• e is the emissivity of a surface, a measure of the

effectiveness of radiation. The value of e ranges from 0 to
1. Human skin is a very effective radiator at body
temperature, with e = 0.97.
• T is the absolute temperature in kelvin.
• A is the surface area in m2.
• σ is a constant known as the Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
with the value σ = 5.67 × 108 W/m2 ⋅ K4.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-211
 Example 12.22 Determining energy loss by
radiation for the body
A person with a skin temperature
of 33°C is in a room at 24°C. What
is the net rate of heat transfer by
radiation?
PREPARE Body temperature is
T = 33 + 273 = 306 K; the
temperature of the room is
T0 = 24 + 273 = 297 K.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-212

 Example 12.22 Determining energy loss by
radiation for the body (cont.)
SOLVE The net radiation rate, given by Equation 12.36, is

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-213

 Example 12.22 Determining energy loss by
radiation for the body (cont.)
ASSESS This is a reasonable value,
roughly matching your resting
metabolic power. When you are
dressed (little convection) and sitting
on wood or plastic (little conduction),
radiation is your body’s primary
mechanism for dissipating the excess
thermal energy of metabolism.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-214

 Summary: General Principles

Text: p. 389
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-215
 Summary: General Principles

Text: p. 389
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-216
 Summary: General Principles

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Text: p. 389 Slide 12-217
 Summary: Important Concepts

Text: p. 389

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-218

 Summary: Important Concepts

Text: p. 389

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-219

 Summary: Important Concepts

Text: p. 389

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-220

 Summary: Applications

Text: p. 389

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-221

 Summary: Applications

Text: p. 389

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-222

 Summary: Applications

Text: p. 389

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-223

 Summary

Text: p. 389

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-224

 Summary

Text: p. 389
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-225
 Summary

Text: p. 389

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 12-226