AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL
COMPONENTS
Structural Considerations
The fuselage shape is usually, as much as possible, that of a
fish, because this is the most streamlined form, presenting the
least wind resistance.
The wing form is dictated by the aerodynamic lift it must
produce, and its placement on the fuselage, by the weight
distribution of the aircraft and its load.
The size and placement of the tail are determined by the
amount of force required to adequately control the airplane.
The landing gear must be strong enough to carry all of the
necessary loads and long enough to provide the required
ground clearance.
Structural Stresses
When an airplane is designed, all of the stresses likely to
be encountered are analyzed, and the structure is built to
withstand them with an adequate factor of safety.
It is important that the structure match the load.
If it is too weak, it will fail; if it is too strong, there will not
only be the weight penalty to pay, but the too-strong
portion of the structure is likely to be too stiff as well, and
will impose unnecessary loads on other portions of the
structure.
Structural Stresses
1. Tension
Tension, or tensile stresses, are forces that tend to pull
an object apart.
A good example of an aircraft part that is loaded in
tension is the control cable. This extra-flexible steel
cable exerts a pull on the control surface, but it has very
little strength to oppose any of the other types of stress.
2. Compression
Compression, or compressive forces, tend to squeeze
together the part subjected to them. When an airplane is
sitting on the ground, the landing gear struts are
subjected to these compressive stresses.
3. Torsion
Torsional stresses, which tend to twist the structure, are actually a
combination of stresses, tension and compression, acting at an angle
of about 45 degrees to the applied force, and 90 degrees to each
other.
The crankshaft of an airplane engine is subject to torsional stresses
as the pistons push the shaft around, against the load imposed by the
propeller.
4. Bending
Bending is another combination of stresses, easy to see in the wing
of a cantilever airplane. The top of the wing is loaded in compression
and the bottom is loaded in tension.
5. Shear
Any stress that tends to slide the material apart is considered shear
stress. The clevis bolt that holds control cables must be installed free
enough to act as a hinge, and because of this, all of the stresses it
encounters are shear stresses.
Structural Stresses
Rivet Joint Consideration
The structure of the aircraft is classified either as
primary or secondary.
Primary structure is that structure which
contributes significantly to carrying flight, ground
and loads, and whose failure would reduce the
structural integrity of the airplane.
Secondary structure is that structure which
carries only air or inertial loads and their failure
would not reduce the structural integrity of the
airframe.
Within the primary structure there are elements
that are designated PSE.
PSE's (Principal Structural Elements) are
those elements that contribute significantly to
carrying flight, ground and pressurization loads,
and whose integrity is essential in maintaining
the overall structural integrity of the airplane.
The major aircraft structures are wings,
fuselage, and empennage (tail assembly).
The primary flight control surfaces, located on
the wings and empennage, are ailerons,
elevators and rudder.
These parts are connected by seams, called
joints.
Wings
Two types:
a. Semicantilever, or braced, wings are used
on light aircraft. They are externally supported by
struts or flying wires which connect the wing spar
to the fuselage.
b. A full cantilever wing is usually made of
stronger metal. It requires no external bracing or
support. The skin carries part of the wing stress.
Wings
Spars
Two or more spars
are used in the
construction of a
wing. They carry the
main longitudinal –
butt to tip – load of
the wing.
Compression Ribs
It carries the main
load in the direction of
flight, from leading
edge to trailing edge.
Former Ribs
A former rib, which is made
from light metal, attaches to
the stringers and wing skins
to give the wing its
aerodynamic shapes.
Stringers
Stringers are made of thin
sheets of preformed
extruded of hand-formed
aluminum alloy. They run
front to back along the
fuselage and from wing butt
to wing tip.
Stress Plates
Stress plates are used on wings to support the
weight of the fuel tank. Some stress plates are
made of thick metal and some are of thin metal
corrugated for strength.
Gussets
Gussets, or gusset plates, are used on aircraft to
join and reinforce intersecting structural
members. Gussets are used to transfer stresses
from one member to another at the point where
the members join.
Wing Tips
The wingtip, the outboard end of the wing, has two
purposes:
a. To aerodynamically smooth out the wing tip air
flow and
b. to give the wing a finished look.
Wing Skins
Wing skins cover the internal parts and provide for
a smooth air flow over the surface of the wing.
On full cantilever wings, the skins carry stress.
Figure 1-4 Internal Parts of a Wing
Types of Fuselage Structure
1. Truss
In this method of
construction, lengthwise
members, called
longerons, carry all of the
main fore-and-aft tensile
and bending loads, while
across members and
diagonals carry
compressive and
torsional loads.
2. Monocoque
The need for both a truss framework to provide the
strength for a fuselage and another structure to give it
the required shape results in an undesirable weight
penalty. Many attempts have been made to solve this
problem, and the most successful solution for small
aircraft is found in the sheet metal monocoque structure.
Monocoque Structure
3. Semimonocoque
Pure monocoque structure is adequate for small aircraft, but as
the size increases and the loads become much greater, the need
for a substructure to support the skin becomes apparent.
Almost every large aircraft is of the semimonocoque
construction, a framework of rings and stringers providing the
shape for this structure.
The framework, which is covered with the aluminum alloy
sheets of appropriate thickness, provides all the advantages of
the monocoque structure, yet has a much greater resistance to
damage from any dents which might appear in the skin.
The semimonocoque structures minimize the problem of
failures caused by dents and creases by supporting the external
skin on a framework of formers, stringers, and longerons.
The internal structure stiffens the skin so it is far less
susceptible to failure caused by deformation.
Because of its increased strength, a semimonocoque design is
used in the construction of most modern aircraft.
Semimonocoque Fuselage
Empennage Section
1. General
The empennage is the tail section of an aircraft. It consists of a
horizontal stabilizer, elevator, vertical stabilizer and rudder.
The conventional empennage section contains the same kind
of parts used in the construction of a wing.
The internal parts of the stabilizers and their flight controls are
made with spars, ribs, stringers and skins. Also, tail sections,
like wings, can be externally or internally braced,
Empennage
Empennage Section
2. Horizontal Stabilizer And Elevator
The horizontal stabilizer is connected to a primary control
surface, i.e., the elevator. The elevator causes the nose of the
aircraft, to pitch up or down.
Together, the horizontal stabilizer and elevator provide
stability about the horizontal axis of the aircraft.
On some aircraft the horizontal stabilizer is made movable by
a screw-jack assembly which allows the pilot to trim the
aircraft during flight.
Empennage Section
3. Vertical Stabilizer And Rudder
The vertical stabilizer is connected to the aft end
of the fuselage and gives the aircraft stability about
the vertical axis.
Connected to the vertical stabilizer is the rudder,
the purpose of which is to turn the aircraft about
its vertical axis.
Flight Controls
1. Ailerons
Elevators and rudders are primary flight controls in the tail
section. Ailerons are primary flight controls connected to the
wings. Located on the outboard portion of the wing, they
allow the aircraft to turn about the longitudinal axis.
When the right aileron is moved upward, the left one goes
down, thus causing the aircraft to roll to the right. Because this
action creates a tremendous force, the ailerons must be
constructed in such a way as to withstand it.
Flight Control
2. Flaps And Spoilers
Wing flaps increase the lift for take-off and landing. Inboard and
outboard flaps, on the trailing edge of the wing, travel from full up,
which is neutral aerodynamic flow position, to full down, causing air
to pile up and create lift. Leading edge flaps Krueger flaps and
variable-camber flaps increase the wing chord size and thus allow the
aircraft to take off or land on a shorter runway,
Spoilers, located in the center section span-wise, serve two purposes.
They assist the high-speed ailerons in turning the aircraft during
flight, and they are used to kill the aerodynamic lift during landing by
spreading open on touchdown.
3. Trim Tabs
Connected to the primary flight controls are devices called trim tabs.
They are used to make fine adjustments to the flight path of an
aircraft, Trim tabs are constructed like wings or ailerons, but are
considerably smaller.
