Design of Machine Elements

DOME MENG 375

(DOME)
MENG 375
Instructor Dr. Riaz Muhammad
[email protected]

Lecture 02
Materials and Selection

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Lecture Outline

• Importance of materials
• Types of materials
DOME MENG 375

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

Source: Animation factory
 Example – Hip Implant
• With age or certain illnesses joints deteriorate. Particularly those with
DOME MENG 375

large loads (such as hip).

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain 3

 Example – Hip Implant
DOME MENG 375

 Requirements
 mechanical strength (many
cycles)
 good lubricity
 biocompatibility

Adapted from Fig. 22.24, Callister 7e.

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain 4

 Example – Hip Implant
DOME MENG 375

AdaptedDepartment,
Mechanical Engineering from Fig. 22.26, Callister of
University 7e.Bahrain, Bahrain 5
 Hip Implant

 Key problems to overcome

DOME MENG 375

 fixation agent to hold Ball

acetabular cup
 cup lubrication material
 femoral stem – fixing agent (“glue”)
 must avoid any debris in cup
Acetabular
Cup and Liner

Femoral
Stem
Adapted from chapter-opening
photograph, Chapter 22, Callister 7e.

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain 6

 Polymers Ceramics
MENG 375

Metals
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain 7
 Types of Materials
 Metals

DOME MENG 375

Ceramics
 Polymers
 Composites
 Semiconductors
 Bio-medical Materials

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain 8

 Metals
 Materials in this group are composed of one or more metallic elements (such as
iron, aluminum, copper, titanium, gold, and nickel), and often also nonmetallic
DOME MENG 375

elements (for example, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen) in relatively small amounts.
 Properties:
 Atoms are arranged in orderly form
 Atoms are arranged in dense pattern
 Relative stiff and strong
 Ductile
 Conductive
 Example:
 Aluminum
 Steel
 Brass
 Gold

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain 9

 Application of Metals
MENG 375

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain 10

 Ceramics
 Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are
most frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides. For example, some of the
DOME MENG 375

common ceramic.
 Properties:
 Corrosion resistance
 High stiffness and hardness
 Brittle
 Insulated
 Example:
 Aluminum oxide (or alumina,Al2O3),
 Silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2),
 Silicon carbide (SiC),
 Silicon nitride (Si3N4)
 Glass

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain 11

 Application of Ceramics
MENG 375

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain 12

 Polymers
 Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials. Many of them are
organic compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other
DOME MENG 375

nonmetallic elements (viz.O,N, and Si).

 Properties:
 Large Molecular Structure
 Low dense molecular structure
 Insulated
 Ductile
 Example:
 polyethylene (PE)
 Nylon
 Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC),
 Polycarbonate (PC)
 Polystyrene (PS)
 Silicone rubber.

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain 13

 Application of Polymers
MENG 375

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain 14

 Composite Materials
 A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials, which come
from the categories discussed above—viz., metals, ceramics, and polymers
DOME MENG 375

 Properties:
 High strength
 Low weight
 Examples:
 Fiber Glass: One of the most common and familiar composites is fiberglass, in
which small glass fibers are embedded within a polymeric material (normally an
epoxy or polyester). The glass fibers are relatively strong and stiff (but also
brittle), whereas the polymer is ductile (but also weak and flexible).
 CFRP: Another of these technologically important materials is the “carbon fiber
reinforced polymer” (or “CFRP”) composite—carbon fibers that are embedded
within a polymer. These materials are stiffer and stronger than the glass fiber-
reinforced materials (Figures 1.4 and 1.5), yet they are more expensive

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain 15

 Application of Composites
MENG 375

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain 16

 Standard Tensile Test
DOME MENG 375

Fig. 2–1

• Used to obtain material characteristics and strengths

• Loaded in tension with slowly increasing P
• Load and deflection are recorded

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Stress and Strain
The stress is calculated from
DOME MENG 375

where is the original cross-sectional area.

The normal strain is calculated from

where l0 is the original gauge length and l is the current length

corresponding to the current P.

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Stress-Strain Diagram
• Plot stress vs. normal strain
• Typically linear relation until the
DOME MENG 375

proportional limit, pl
• No permanent deformation until
the elastic limit, el
• Yield strength, Sy , defined at point Ductile material
where significant plastic
deformation begins, or where
permanent set reaches a fixed
amount, usually 0.2% of the
original gauge length
• Ultimate strength, Su , defined as
the maximum stress on the diagram Brittle material

Fig. 2–2
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain
 Elastic Relationship of Stress and Strain

• Slope of linear section is

Young’s Modulus, or modulus
DOME MENG 375

of elasticity, E
• Hooke’s law

• E is relatively constant for a

given type of material (e.g.
steel, copper, aluminum)
Fig. 2–2 (a)

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Compression Strength
• Compression tests are used to obtain
compressive strengths.
DOME MENG 375

• Buckling and bulging can be problematic.

• For ductile materials, compressive strengths are
usually about the same as tensile strengths, Suc =
Sut .
• For brittle materials, compressive strengths, Suc ,
are often greater than tensile strengths, Sut .

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Torsional Strengths
Torsional strengths are found by twisting solid circular bars.
Results are plotted as a torque-twist diagram.
DOME MENG 375

Shear stresses in the specimen are linear with respect to the

radial location – zero at the center and maximum at the outer
radius.
Maximum shear stress is related to the angle of twist by

◦ q is the angle of twist (in radians)

◦ r is the radius of the bar
◦ l0 is the gauge length
◦ G is the material stiffness property called the shear modulus or
modulus of rigidity.

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Resilience
• Resilience – Capacity of a material
to absorb energy within its elastic
DOME MENG 375

range
• Modulus of resilience, uR
– Energy absorbed per unit
volume without permanent
deformation
– Equals the area under the
stress-strain curve up to the
elastic limit
– Elastic limit often
approximated by yield point

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Resilience
• Area under curve to yield point gives approximation
DOME MENG 375

• If elastic region is linear,

• For two materials with the same yield strength, the less stiff
material (lower E) has greater resilience

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Toughness
• Toughness – capacity of a material to
absorb energy without fracture
DOME MENG 375

• Modulus of toughness, uT
– Energy absorbed per unit volume
without fracture
– Equals area under the stress-strain
curve up to the fracture point

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Toughness
• Area under curve up to fracture point
DOME MENG 375

• Often estimated graphically from stress-strain data

• Approximated by using the average of yield and ultimate
strengths and the strain at fracture

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Resilience and Toughness
• Measures of energy absorbing characteristics of a material
• Units are energy per unit volume
DOME MENG 375

– lbf·in/in3 or J/m3
• Assumes low strain rates
• For higher strain rates, use impact methods

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Cold Work
• Cold work – Process of plastic
straining below recrystallization
DOME MENG 375

temperature in the plastic region of

the stress-strain diagram

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Hardness
• Hardness – The resistance of a material to penetration by a
pointed tool
DOME MENG 375

• Two most common hardness-measuring systems

– Rockwell
• A, B, and C scales
• Specified indenters and loads for each scale
• Hardness numbers are relative
– Brinell
• Hardness number HB is the applied load divided by the
spherical surface area of the indentation

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Strength and Hardness
• For many materials, relationship between
ultimate strength and Brinell hardness number is
DOME MENG 375

roughly linear
• For steels

• For cast iron

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Impact Properties
• Charpy/Izod notched-bar test used to determine brittleness and
impact strength
DOME MENG 375

• Specimen struck by pendulum

• Energy absorbed, called impact value, is computed from height
of swing after fracture

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Effect of Strain Rate on Impact
DOME MENG 375

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Temperature Effects on Strengths
DOME MENG 375

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Creep
• Creep – a continuous deformation
under load for long periods of time
DOME MENG 375

at elevated temperatures
• Often exhibits three stages
– 1st stage: elastic and plastic
deformation; decreasing creep
rate due to strain hardening
– 2nd stage: constant minimum
creep rate caused by the
annealing effect
– 3rd stage: considerable
reduction in area; increased
true stress; higher creep rate
leading to fracture
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain
 Hot-working Processes
• Process in which metal is formed while heated above
recrystallization temperature
DOME MENG 375

• Refined grain size

• Rough surface finish
• Rolling, forging, extrusion, pressing
• Common bar cross-sections from hot-rolling

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Heat Treatment of Steel
• Time and temperature controlled processes that modifies
material properties
DOME MENG 375

• Annealing
– Heated above critical temperature, held, then slowly cooled
– Refines grain structure, softens, increases ductility
– Erases memory of prior operations
– Normalizing provides partial annealing by adjusting time and
temperature
• Quenching
– Controlled cooling rate prevents full annealing
– Less pearlite, more martensite and/or bainite
– Increased strength, hardness, brittleness

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Heat Treatment of Steel
• Tempering
– Reheat after quenching to a temperature below the critical
DOME MENG 375

temperature
– Relieves internal stresses
– Increases ductility, slight reduction in strength and hardness

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Material Families and Classes (Table 2-4)
DOME MENG 375

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Material Families and Classes (Table 2-4)
DOME MENG 375

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Material Families and Classes (Table 2-4)
DOME MENG 375

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Material Families and Classes (Table 2-4)
DOME MENG 375

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Young’s Modulus for Various Materials
DOME MENG 375

Fig. 2–15
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain
ng Design

Young’s Modulus vs. Density

DOME MENG 375

Fig. 2–16
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain
 Specific Modulus
• Specific Modulus – ratio of
Young’s modulus to density,
DOME MENG 375

E/
• Also called specific stiffness
• Useful to minimize weight
with primary design
limitation of deflection,
stiffness, or natural
frequency
Fig. 2–16
• Parallel lines representing
different values of E /
allow comparison of
specific modulus between
materials
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain
 Minimum Mass Guidelines for Young’s Modulus-Density Plot

 Guidelines plot
DOME MENG 375

constant values of
E/
  depends on type of
loading
  = 1 for axial
  = 1/2 for bending

Example, for axial loading, Fig. 2–16

k = AE/l  A = kl/E
m = Al = (kl/E) l =kl2  /E
Thus, to minimize mass, maximize E/ ( = 1)

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 The Performance Metric

The performance metric depends on (1) the

functional requirements, (2) the geometry, and
DOME MENG 375

(3) the material properties.

The function is often separable,

f3 (M) is called the material efficiency coefficient.

Maximizing or minimizing f3 (M) allows the

material choice to be used to optimize P.
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain
 Performance Metric Example
• Requirements: light, stiff, end-loaded cantilever beam with
circular cross section
DOME MENG 375

• Mass m of the beam is chosen as the performance metric to

minimize
• Stiffness is functional requirement
• Stiffness is related to material and geometry

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Performance Metric Example
Fl 3
From beam deflection table, 
3EI
DOME MENG 375

Sub Eq. (2-26) into Eq. (2-25) and solve for A

The performance metric is

Sub Eq. (2-27) into Eq. (2-28),

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

ng Design

Performance Metric Example

DOME MENG 375

Separating into the form of Eq. (2-24),

To minimize m, need to minimize f3 (M), or maximize

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

ng Design

Performance Metric Example

M is called material
index
DOME MENG 375

 For this example,  =

½
 Use guidelines parallel
to E1/2/
 Increasing M, move up
and to the left
 Good candidates for
this example are
certain woods,
composites, and Fig. 2–17
ceramics

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

ng Design

Performance Metric Example

 Additional constraints
can be added as
DOME MENG 375

needed
 For example, if it is
desired that E > 50
GPa, add horizontal
line to limit the
solution space
 Wood is eliminated as
a viable option

Fig. 2–18

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

ng Design

Strength vs. Density

DOME MENG 375

Fig. 2–19
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain
 Specific Modulus
• Specific Strength – ratio of
strength to density, S / 
DOME MENG 375

• Useful to minimize weight with

primary design limitation of
strength
• Parallel lines representing
different values of S / allow
comparison of specific strength
between materials

Fig. 2–19

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Minimum Mass Guidelines for
ng Design

Strength-Density Plot
 Guidelines plot
constant values of
DOME MENG 375

S/
  depends on type
of loading
  = 1 for axial
  = 2/3 for bending

Example, for axial loading, Fig. 2–19

 = F/A = S  A = F/S
m = Al = (F/S) l
Thus, to minimize m, maximize S/ ( = 1)
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain
 Minimum Mass Guidelines for
ng Design

Strength-Density Plot
 Guidelines plot
constant values of
DOME MENG 375

S/
  depends on type
of loading
  = 1 for axial
  = 2/3 for bending

Example, for axial loading, Fig. 2–19

 = F/A = S  A = F/S
m = Al = (F/S) l
Thus, to minimize m, maximize S/ ( = 1)
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain
 Minimum Mass Guidelines for
Strength-Density Plot
DOME MENG 375

Fig. 2–19

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Minimum Mass Guidelines for
Strength-Density Plot
DOME MENG 375

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Minimum Mass Guidelines for
Strength-Density Plot
DOME MENG 375

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Minimum Mass Guidelines for
Strength-Density Plot
DOME MENG 375

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Minimum Mass Guidelines for
Strength-Density Plot
DOME MENG 375

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

 Minimum Mass Guidelines for
Strength-Density Plot
DOME MENG 375

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Bahrain, Bahrain