ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS

BATTERY

• An automotive battery is a type of rechargeable battery that

supplies electric energy to an automobile.

• It is charged back by the alternator.

 Purpose

• A battery supplies power to the starter and ignition system to

start the engine.

• A battery also supplies the extra power necessary when the

vehicle's electrical load exceeds the supply from the charging
system.

• Supplies power to the electrical systems when engine is not

running.
• Battery Cell - Consists of Negative &Positive plates
made of lead and lead oxide
• Battery Cycling - Repeated charging and discharging events

– Charging - Current flowing into the battery from the

charging system
 BASIC TERMS:
• Cell : A single cell with two current leads and separate
compartment holding electrodes, separator, and electrolyte.
(2.1V)
• Module: A module is composed of a few cells either by
physical attachment or by welding in between cells.
• ( 6*2.1=12.6V)
• Pack: A pack of batteries is composed of modules and placed
in a single container for thermal management.

• Ampere-hour Capacity: Ampere-hour (Ah) capacity is the total

charge that can be discharged from a fully charged battery
under specified conditions.
• Specific Energy: It is used to define how much energy a
battery can store per unit mass. (Wh/kg)

• Specific Power: It is the peak power per unit mass.

(W/kg)

• Energy Density: It is the nominal battery energy per unit

volume ( Wh/lt).

• Power Density : It is the peak power per unit volume of a

battery .
• Internal Resistance: Internal resistance is the overall
equivalent resistance within the battery. It is different for
charging and discharging and may vary as the operating
condition changes.

• Peak Power: P = 2Voc2 / 9R

where Voc is the open-circuit voltage and R is the internal
resistance of battery

State of Charge (SOC): the remaining capacity of a battery

and it is affected by its operating conditions such as load current
and temperature.
SOC = Remaining Capacity / Rated Capacity
• Depth of Discharge (DOD) : It is used to indicate the
percentage of the total battery capacity that has been
discharged.
DOD = 1 – SOC

• State of Health (SOH): The ratio of the maximum charge

capacity of an aged battery to the maximum charge capacity
when the battery was new.
SOH = Aged Energy Capacity /Rated Energy Capacity

• Cycle Life (number of cycles): Cycle life is the number of

discharge-charge cycles the battery can handle at a specific
DOD (normally 80%) before it fails to meet specific
performance criteria. (1000 cycles)
• C Rate: In describing batteries, discharge current is expressed
as a C-rate in order to normalize against battery capacity,
which is often very different between batteries.

A C-rate is a measure of the rate at which a battery is

discharged relative to its maximum capacity. A 1C rate means
that the discharge current will discharge the entire battery in
1 hour.

For a battery with a capacity of 100 Amp-hrs, this equates to a

discharge current of 100 Amps. A 5C rate for this battery
would be 500 Amps, and a C/2 rate would be 50 Amps
 components of Battery

Batteries are made of

five basic components:
1. A Plastic container.
2. Positive and negative
internal plates made of
lead.
 components of Battery
• 3. Plate separators made
of porous synthetic
material.
• 4. Electrolyte, a dilute
solution of sulfuric acid
and water known as
battery acid.
• 5. Lead terminals, the
connection point between
the battery and whatever
it powers.
6 cells X 2.1V each =12.6V
Battery Configurations

• Batteries come in different voltages for different

applications (# no of cells x 2.1Volts)
6 Volt 8 Volt 12 Volt
3 cells 4 cells 6 cells

Actually 6.3 volts Actually 8.4 volts Actually 12.6 volts

old cars and golf carts and floor modern vehicles
tractors machines
 BATTERY DISCHARGE CYCLE
• Acid reacts with plate material
• Positive and Negative plates
form lead sulfate
• Negative terminal has excess
electrons
• Positive terminal has a lack of
electrons

15
• As batteries discharge, the acid is turned to
water and the lead plates are turned into lead
sulfate

• When both plates are turned to lead sulfate,

the battery is discharged or dead
 BATTERY CHARGE CYCLE
• Alternator forces
electrons back into the
battery
• Lead sulfate breaks up
• Reforms into acid in the
electrolyte
• Amount of water
decreases and Amount of
acid increases in
electrolyte

17
 ratings

• Ampere-hours (A·h) is a measure of electrical charge that a

battery can deliver.

• Indicates the total amount of charge that a battery is able to

store and deliver at its rated voltage.

• discharge current X duration

• 12 volt 100Ah battery

• This battery will provide 100 AMPERE-HOURS before needing

to be re-charged. This may be taken from the battery as
• 1 AMP for 100 hours
• 2 AMPS for 50 hours
• 10 AMPS for 10 hours etc.

• WATTS are VOLTAGE multiplied by CURRENT, so taking the

above example with the 12 volt battery
• 1 AMP x 12 VOLTS = 12 WATTS for 100 hours
• 2 AMPS x 12 VOLTS = 24 WATTS for 50 hours
• 10 AMPS x 12 VOLTS = 120 WATTS for 10 hours
• Re-charging a battery follows the same principle.

• battery is not totally efficient at converting electrical energy

into chemical energy and vice-versa

re-charging a 100Ah battery requires about 120Ah to be put

back into it,

• this can be achieved by either

120 Amp-hours / 10 hours = 12 Amps for 10 hours
120 Amp-hours / 15 hours = 8 Amps for 15 hours
120 Amp-hours / 24 hours = 5 Amps for 24 hours etc.
• If the lights add up to 36 WATTS and the battery VOLTAGE is
12 VOLTS then
the CURRENT taken from the battery will be
36 WATTS / 12 VOLTS = 3 AMPS

• If these lights are on while the battery is being charged, then

the battery charger must also
provide an extra 3 AMPS to power them.
 Battery Charger Selection

1. Determine the battery voltage - 12 volt or 24 volt

2. Determine how many batteries are to be charged (1,2,3 or 4)

3. What are the battery capacities (Ah)?Add them together

e.g. 2 x 60Ah, 1 x 100Ah = 220 Ah total

4. What re-charge time is required?

(6 hours minimum, usually 24 hours maximum - if not known,
assume 10 hours)

5. Divide TOTAL Ah by the re-charge time to get CHARGING CURRENT

e.g. 220Ah / 10 hours = 22 AMPS.
6. ADD 20% to allow for battery in-efficiency
i.e. 22 AMPS + 20% = 26.4 AMPS

7. Is there any additional load current on the battery during re-

charging? If so, add this to the CHARGING CURRENT.
e.g. 24 WATTS / 12 VOLTS = 2 AMPS

8.CHARGER CURRENT REQUIRED = 26.4 AMPS + 2 AMPS = 28.4 AMPS.

• Choose the next biggest charger in the range

e.g. 12 VOLT, 30 AMP, 3 BATTERY BANKS
 EV Charging Power levels

Charging level Typical charging power

• Level I 1.5-3 kW
• Level II 10-20 kW
• Level III 40 kW and up
Considering a battery with capacity of 100 kWh
Suppose, nominal terminal voltage= 580 V
Then, Ah capacity of battery= (100 X 1000)/580 =172.5 Ah

For level I (1.5-3kW) charging:

Let charging power of 3kW
Maximum allowable charging current=
(3 X 1000)/580 = 5.17 A
Charging time= 172.5/5.17 = 33.26 hours
For level II (10-20kW) charging:
Let charging power of 20kW
Maximum allowable charging current=
(20X 1000)/580 = 34.5 A
Charging time= 172.5/34.5 = 5 hours

For level III (40kW and up) charging:

Let charging power of 340kW
Maximum allowable charging current=
(340 X1000)/580 = 586 A
Charging time= 172.5/586 = 18 minutes
 C- Rate comparison for different levels of charging

Level I charging :
C rate = 5.17/172.5= 0.03C

Level II charging :
C rate = 34.5/172.5= 0.2C

Level III charging :

C rate = 586/172.5= 3.39C
 Energy storage technologies for EVs

Key areas for potential development:

• Development of new battery technologies for large driving
range

• Battery technology to increase specific energy and specific

power

• Research in fuel cell technology to make them feasible for use

in EV

• Development of Ultra capacitors with higher capacity

 Basic Battery Management System

Battery Management System includes:

• Monitoring: Measurement of cell voltages, SoC and SoH

• Control: Keeping battery parameters in limits

• Diagnosis : Detection of any abnormal condition

The desirable features of batteries for EV and HEV :
• high specific power,
• high specific energy,
• high charge acceptance rate for recharging and regenerative braking
• long calendar and cycle life.

Challenges in batteries for EV and HEV :

• Methods and designs to balance the battery segments or packs electrically
and thermally
• Accurate techniques to determine a battery’s state of charge,
• Recycling facilities of battery components.
• Cost of batteries must be reasonable for EVs and HEVs to be
commercially viable
 Nominal Energy Density of Sources

Energy Source Nominal Specific Energy (Wh/kg)

• Gasoline 12,500
• Natural gas 9350
• Methanol 6050
• Hydrogen 33,000
• Coal (bituminous) 8200
• Lead-acid battery 35
• Lithium-polymer battery 200
• Flywheel (carbon-fiber) 200
 Specific Energy of EV and HEV Batteries

Battery Specific Energy (Wh/kg) Specific Power(W/Kg)

• Lead-acid 35-50 150-400

• Nickel-cadmium 30–50 100-150
• Nickel-metal hydride 60-80 200-400
• Aluminum-air 200-300 100
• Zinc –air 100-220 30-80
• Sodium-sulfur 150-240 230
• Sodium Nickel Chloride 90-120 130-160
• Li-Polymer 150-200 350
• Li-ion 90-160 200-350
 LEAD-ACID BATTERY
• The battery cell operation consists of a cell discharge operation, when the
energy is supplied from the battery to the electric motor to develop
propulsion power.
• Cell charge operation, when energy is supplied from an external source to
store energy in the battery.
• ( Note : Charging and discharging cycle already discussed in slides 15-17 )

• The positive electrode equation is

• The negative electrode equation is

(early 1980s, over 100,000,000 lead-acid batteries were produced per year)
Merits of Lead acid batteries:
• Relatively low cost
• Easy availability of raw materials (lead, sulfur)
• Ease of manufacture
• Favorable electromechanical characteristics
• safe and reliable

Demerits of Lead acid batteries:

• low specific energy
• poor cold temperature performance
• short calendar and cycle life
 Lithium Batteries
• Since the late 1980s ,rechargeable lithium cells.
• greatly increased energy density in comparison with other rechargeable
batteries
• Types:
– Lithium polymer batteries
– Lithium ion batteries

Lithium polymer batteries :

• lithium metal for the negative electrode
• metal intercalation oxide for the positive electrode . (venadium oxide V6O13)
 (intercalation is the reversible inclusion or insertion of a molecule (or ion)
into materials with layered structures.)
• Poly ethylene oxide compounded with an electrolyte salt as solid
electrolyte
• In the resulting chemical reaction, the lithium combines with the metal
oxide to form a lithium metal oxide and release energy.

• When the battery is recharged the chemical reaction is reversed.

• The overall chemical reaction is: Lix + M y Oz « Lix M y Oz

Merits of Lithium polymer battery:

• thin Li-poly cell gives the added advantage of forming a battery of any size
or shape to suit the available space within the EV or HEV chassis.
• high specific energy and power
• The use of solid polymers also has a great safety advantage in case of EV
and HEV accidents. Because the lithium is intercalated into carbon
electrodes, the lithium is in ionic form and is less reactive than pure
lithium metal
• good cycle and calendar life
Lithium –ion Batteries:
• in the early 1990s
• lithiated carbon for the negative electrode
• Lithiated metal intercalation oxide for the positive electrode. (cobalt
LiCoO2 or manganese LiMnO2 or nickel oxide LiNiO2)
• The electrolyte is a solid polymer.

• Electrical energy is obtained from the combination of the lithium carbon

and the lithium metal oxide to form carbon and lithium metal oxide.

• The overall chemical reaction for the battery is: 

C6 Lix + M y Oz « 6C + Lix M y Oz
• The cell discharge operation in a Li-ion cell using LiCoO2 :
• During cell discharge, lithium ions (Li+) are released from the negative
electrode that travels through an organic electrolyte toward the positive
electrode.
• In the positive electrode, the lithium ions are quickly incorporated into the
lithium compound material. The process is completely reversible.

• The chemical reactions at the electrodes are

• At the negative electrode
LixC6  6C + xLi ++xe - where 0<x<1

• At the positive electrode ,

xLi+ + xe- +Li (1-x) CoO2  LiCoO2

• During cell charge operation, lithium ions move in the opposite direction
from the positive electrode to the negative electrode
Merits of Li-ion batteries:
• high specific energy,
• high specific power,
• high energy efficiency, good
• high-temperature performance,
• low self-discharge.
• components of Li-ion batteries are recyclable.
- These characteristics make Li-ion batteries highly suitable for EV and HEV
and other applications of rechargeable batteries.

Demerits of Li-ion batteries :

• Very sensitive to over voltages and over discharges
ZINC-AIR BATTERY :
• metallic zinc as negative electrode
• gaseous positive electrode of oxygen.
• potassium hydroxide as electrolyte

• The practical zinc-air battery is only mechanically rechargeable by

replacing the discharged product, zinc hydroxide, with fresh zinc
electrodes.
• The discharged electrode and the potassium hydroxide electrolyte are
sent to a recycling facility.
• zinc-air battery is analogous to a fuel cell, with the fuel being the zinc
metal.
• Good specific energy of 200 Wh/kg, but only a modest specific power of
100 W/kg at 80% depth-of-discharge.
• Range of zinc-air batteries can be between 300 to 600 km between
recharges.
SODIUM-SULFUR BATTERY :
• Sodium, similar to lithium, has a high electrochemical reduction potential
(2.71 V) and low atomic mass (23.0), making it an attractive negative
electrode element for batteries.
• Sulfur as positive electrode
• Beta-alumina (sodium aluminum oxide) as electrolyte.

Merits of Sodium Sulfur batteries:

• sodium is abundant in nature and available at a low cost.
• Sulfur is also a readily available and low-cost material.

• Demerits of Sodium Sulfur batteries:

• The cell operating temperature is around 300°C, which requires adequate
insulation as well as a thermal control unit. This requirement forces a
certain minimum size of the battery, limiting the development of the
battery for only Evs.
• absence of an overcharge mechanism. At the top-of-charge, one or more
cells can develop a high resistance, which pulls down the entire voltage of
the series-connected battery cells.
• chemical reaction between molten sodium and sulfur can cause excessive
heat or explosion in the case of an accident.

SODIUM-METAL-CHLORIDE BATTERY:
• Sodium as negative electrode.
• nickel chloride (NiCl2) or a mixture of nickel chloride and ferrous
chloride (FeCl2) as positive electrode
• Beta-alumina as electrolyte
(to provide good ionic contact between the positive electrode and the electrolyte,
both of which are solids, a second electrolyte of sodium chloraluminate (NaAlCl4)
is introduced in a layer between NiCl2 and beta-alumina.)
•The basic cell reactions for the nickel chloride and ferrous chloride positive
electrodes are

•The cells are assembled in a discharged state. The positive electrode

is prefabricated from a mixture of Ni or Fe powder and NaCl.

•On charging after assembly, the positive electrode compartment is formed of

the respective metal, and the negative electrode compartment is formed of
sodium.
• This procedure has advantages:
1)pure sodium is manufactured in situ through diffusion in beta-alumina,
and the raw materials for the battery (common salt and metal powder) are
inexpensive.
• 2)Although iron is cheaper than nickel, the latter is more attractive as the
metallic component because of fewer complications and a wider operating
temperature range.

(Note : Sodium chloride batteries are commonly known as ZEBRA batteries)

 BATTERY DESIGN
Energy calculation for Delhi Driving Cycle:
Design Calculation :
Battery Charging Methods

Typical Li-ion cell charge profile

 EV charging

Electric vehicle energy transfer system applicable standards.

Scope of BMS and battery failure reasons
Structure of Battery Management System
Control sequence in BMS
Sensor module in BMS
Implementation of BMS