Chapter 5

The Skeletal System

Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 The Skeletal System

 Parts of the skeletal system

 Bones (skeleton)
 Joints
 Cartilages
 Ligaments
 Two subdivisions of the skeleton
1. Axial skeleton
2. Appendicular skeleton

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 Functions of the Bones

 Support the body

 Protect soft organs
 Skull and vertebrae protect brain and spinal cord
 Rib cage protects thoracic cavity organs
 Attached skeletal muscles allow movement
 Store minerals and fats
 Calcium and phosphorus
 Fat in the internal marrow cavity
 Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)

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 Classification of Bones

 The adult skeleton has 206 bones

 Two basic types of osseous (bone) tissue
1. Compact bone
 Dense, smooth, and homogeneous
2. Spongy bone
 Small needlelike pieces of bone
 Many open spaces

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Figure 5.1 Flat bones consist of a layer of spongy bone sandwiched between two thin layers of compact bone.

Spongy
bone

Compact
bone
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 Classification of Bone

 Bones are classified on the basis of shape into

four groups
 Long
 Flat
 Short
 Irregular

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Figure 5.2 Classification of bones on the basis of shape.

(b) Flat bone (sternum)

(a) Long bone (humerus)

(d) Irregular bone (vertebra),

right lateral view (c) Short bone (talus)

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 Classification of Bones

 Long bones
 Typically longer than they are wide
 Shaft with enlarged ends
 Contain mostly compact bone; spongy bone at ends
 All of the bones of the limbs (except wrist, ankle, and
kneecap bones) are long bones
 Examples:
 Femur
 Humerus

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Figure 5.2a Classification of bones on the basis of shape.

(a) Long bone (humerus)

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 Classification of Bones

 Flat bones
 Thin, flattened, and usually curved
 Two thin layers of compact bone sandwich a layer of
spongy bone between them
 Examples:
 Most bones of the skull
 Ribs
 Sternum

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Figure 5.2b Classification of bones on the basis of shape.

(b) Flat bone (sternum)

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 Classification of Bones

 Short bones
 Generally cube-shaped
 Contain mostly spongy bone with an outer layer of
compact bone
 Sesamoid bones are a type of short bone that form
within tendons (patella)
 Examples:
 Carpals (wrist bones)
 Tarsals (ankle bones)

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Figure 5.2c Classification of bones on the basis of shape.

(c) Short bone (talus)

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 Classification of Bones

 Irregular bones
 Irregular shape
 Do not fit into other bone classification categories
 Examples:
 Vertebrae
 Hip bones

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Figure 5.2d Classification of bones on the basis of shape.

(d) Irregular bone (vertebra),

right lateral view

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© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Structure of Bone

 Long bone anatomy

 Diaphysis (shaft)
 Makes up most of bone’s length
 Composed of compact bone
 Periosteum
 Outside covering of the diaphysis
 Fibrous connective tissue membrane
 Perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers secure periosteum to
underlying bone

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Figure 5.3a The structure of a long bone (humerus of arm).
Articular
cartilage

Proximal
epiphysis
Spongy bone

Epiphyseal
line

Periosteum
Compact bone
Medullary
cavity (lined
by endosteum)

Diaphysis

Distal
epiphysis

(a)
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Figure 5.3c The structure of a long bone (humerus of arm).

Endosteum

Yellow
bone marrow

Compact bone
Periosteum

Perforating
(Sharpey’s)
fibers
Nutrient
arteries

(c)
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 Structure of Bone

 Long bone anatomy (continued)

 Epiphysis (ends)
 Composed mostly of spongy bone enclosed by thin
layer of compact bone
 Articular cartilage
 Covers the external surface of the epiphyses
 Made of hyaline cartilage
 Decreases friction at joint surfaces

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Figure 5.3b The structure of a long bone (humerus of arm).

Articular
cartilage

Compact bone

Spongy bone

(b)

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 Structure of Bone

 Long bone anatomy (continued)

 Epiphyseal line
 Remnant of the epiphyseal plate
 Seen in adult bones
 Epiphyseal plate
 Flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in young, growing
bone
 Causes lengthwise growth of a long bone

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Figure 5.3a The structure of a long bone (humerus of arm).
Articular
cartilage

Proximal
epiphysis
Spongy bone

Epiphyseal
line

Periosteum
Compact bone
Medullary
cavity (lined
by endosteum)

Diaphysis

Distal
epiphysis

(a)
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 Structure of Bone

 Long bone anatomy (continued)

 Endosteum
 Lines the inner surface of the shaft
 Made of connective tissue
 Medullary cavity
 Cavity inside the shaft
 Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in adults
 Contains red marrow for blood cell formation in infants
until age 6 or 7

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Figure 5.3a The structure of a long bone (humerus of arm).
Articular
cartilage

Proximal
epiphysis
Spongy bone

Epiphyseal
line

Periosteum
Compact bone
Medullary
cavity (lined
by endosteum)

Diaphysis

Distal
epiphysis

(a)
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 Structure of Bone

 Bone markings
 Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and
ligaments
 Passages for nerves and blood vessels
 Categories of bone markings
 Projections or processes—grow out from the bone
surface
 Terms often begin with “T”
 Depressions or cavities—indentations
 Terms often begin with “F”

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Table 5.1 Bone Markings (1 of 3)

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Table 5.1 Bone Markings (2 of 3)

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Table 5.1 Bone Markings (3 of 3)

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 Structure of Bone

 Microscopic anatomy of spongy bone

 Composed of small, needlelike pieces of bone called
trabeculae and open spaces
 Open spaces are filled by marrow, blood vessels, and
nerves

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Figure 5.4a Microscopic structure of bone.

Trabeculae of
spongy bone
Osteon
(Haversian Perforating
system) (Volkmann’s)
canal
Blood vessel continues
into medullary cavity
containing marrow
Blood vessel
Lamellae Compact bone

Central (Haversian) canal

Perforating (Sharpey’s)
fibers

Periosteum

Periosteal
blood vessel
(a)
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 Structure of Bone

 Microscopic anatomy of compact bone

 Osteocytes
 Mature bone cells situated in bone matrix
 Lacunae
 Cavities in bone matrix that house osteocytes
 Lamellae
 Concentric circles of lacunae situated around the
central (Haversian) canal

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 Structure of Bone

 Microscopic anatomy of compact bone

(continued)
 Central (Haversian) canal
 Opening in the center of an osteon (Haversian system)
 Runs lengthwise through bone
 Carries blood vessels and nerves
 Osteon (Haversian system)
 A unit of bone containing central canal and matrix rings
 Structural and functional unit of compact bone

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Figure 5.4b Microscopic structure of bone.

Lamella

Osteocyte

Canaliculus
Lacuna
Central
Bone matrix (Haversian)
canal
(b)

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Figure 5.4c Microscopic structure of bone.

Osteon

Interstitial
lamellae

Lacuna
Central
(Haversian) canal
(c)

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 Structure of Bone

 Microscopic anatomy of compact bone

(continued)
 Canaliculi
 Tiny canals
 Radiate from the central canal to lacunae
 Form a transport system connecting all bone cells to a
nutrient supply
 Perforating (Volkmann’s) canal
 Canal perpendicular to the central canal
 Carries blood vessels and nerves

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Figure 5.4b Microscopic structure of bone.

Lamella

Osteocyte

Canaliculus
Lacuna
Central
Bone matrix (Haversian)
canal
(b)

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 Structure of Bone

 Bone is relatively lightweight and resists tension

and other forces
 Organic parts (collagen fibers) of the bone make
bone flexible and have great tensile strength
 Calcium salts deposited in the bone make bone
hard to resist compression

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 Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodeling

 Bone formation and growth

 Ossification is the process of bone formation
 Occurs on hyaline cartilage models or fibrous
membranes
 Long bone growth involves two major phases

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 Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodeling

 Two major phases of ossification in long bones

1. Osteoblasts (bone-forming cells) cover hyaline
cartilage model with bone matrix
2. In a fetus, the enclosed cartilage is digested away,
opening up a medullary cavity

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Figure 5.5 Stages of long-bone formation in an embryo, fetus, and young child.

Articular
cartilage
Hyaline Spongy
cartilage bone
New center of
bone growth New bone
Epiphyseal forming
plate
cartilage Growth
Medullary in bone
cavity width
Bone starting Invading
to replace Growth blood
cartilage in bone vessels
length
New bone
Bone collar forming
Hyaline Epiphyseal
cartilage plate cartilage
model
In an embryo In a fetus In a child

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Figure 5.6 Growth and remodeling of long bones. Slide 4

Bone growth
Bone grows in
length because:

1 Cartilage Articular cartilage

grows here.
Epiphyseal plate
2 Cartilage
is replaced
by bone here.

3 Cartilage
grows here.

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 Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodeling

 By birth, most cartilage is converted to bone

except for two regions in a long bone
1. Articular cartilages
2. Epiphyseal plates
 New cartilage is formed continuously on external
face of these two cartilages
 Old cartilage is broken down and replaced by
bony matrix

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Figure 5.6 Growth and remodeling of long bones. Slide 8

Bone remodeling
Growing shaft is
remodeled as:

Articular cartilage

Epiphyseal plate
1 Bone is
resorbed by
osteoclasts here.
2 Bone is added
(appositional
growth)
by osteoblasts here.
3 Bone is resorbed
by osteoclasts here.

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 Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodeling

 Appositional growth
 Bones grow in width
 Osteoblasts in the periosteum add bone matrix to the
outside of the diaphysis
 Osteoclasts in the endosteum remove bone from the
inner surface of the diaphysis
 Bone growth is controlled by hormones, such as
growth hormone and sex hormones

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 Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodeling

 Bones are remodeled throughout life in response

to two factors
1. Calcium ion level in the blood determines when bone
matrix is to be broken down or formed
2. Pull of gravity and muscles on the skeleton
determines where bone matrix is to be broken down
or formed

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 Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodeling

 Calcium ion regulation

 Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
 Released when calcium ion levels in blood are low
 Activates osteoclasts (bone-destroying cells)
 Osteoclasts break down bone and release calcium ions
into the blood
 Hypercalcemia (high blood calcium levels) prompts
calcium storage to bones by osteoblasts

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 Bone Fractures

 Fracture: break in a bone

 Types of bone fractures
 Closed (simple) fracture is a break that does not
penetrate the skin
 Open (compound) fracture is a broken bone that
penetrates through the skin

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 Bone Fractures

 Bone fractures are treated by reduction and

immobilization
 Closed reduction: bones are manually coaxed into
position by physician’s hands
 Open reduction: bones are secured with pins or wires
during surgery
 Healing time is 6–8 weeks

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 Bone Fractures

 Repair of bone fractures involves four major

events
 Hematoma (blood-filled swelling, or bruise) is formed
 Fibrocartilage callus forms
 Cartilage matrix, bony matrix, collagen fibers splint the
broken bone
 Bony callus replaces the fibrocartilage callus
 Osteoblasts and osteoclasts migrate in
 Bone remodeling occurs in response to mechanical
stresses

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Figure 5.7 Stages in the healing of a bone fracture.

Hematoma
External Bony
callus callus of
spongy
bone
New
Internal blood
vessels Healed
callus
fracture
(fibrous
tissue and Spongy
cartilage) bone
trabecula

1 Hematoma Fibrocartilage
2 3 Bony callus 4 Bone remodeling
forms. callus forms. forms. occurs.

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Table 5.2 Common Types of Fractures

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 Axial Skeleton

 Forms the longitudinal axis of the body

 Divided into three parts
1. Skull
2. Vertebral column
3. Bony thorax

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Figure 5.8a The human skeleton.

Cranium
Skull Facial bones

Clavicle
Thoracic cage Scapula
(ribs and Sternum
sternum) Rib
Humerus
Vertebra
Vertebral
Radius
column
Ulna
Sacru
m Carpals

Phalanges
Metacarpals
Femur
Patella

Tibia
Fibula

Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
(a) Anterior view
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Figure 5.8b The human skeleton.

Cranium
Bones of
pectoral
Clavicle girdle
Scapula
Sternum Upper
Rib limb
Humerus
Vertebr
R
a adius Bones of
Ulna pelvic
Carpals girdle

Phalanges
Metacarpals
Femur
Lower
Tibia limb
Fibula

(b) Posterior view

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© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Skull

 Two sets of bones form the skull

1. Cranium bones enclose the brain
2. Facial bones
 Hold eyes in anterior position
 Allow facial muscles to express feelings
 Bones are joined by sutures
 Only the mandible is attached by a freely
movable joint

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 Skull

 8 cranial bones protect the brain

1 Frontal bone
2 Occipital bone
3 Ethmoid bone
4 Sphenoid bone
5, 6 Parietal bones (pair)
7, 8 Temporal bones (pair)

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 Skull

 14 facial bones
1, 2 Maxillae (pair)
3, 4 Palatine bones (pair)
5, 6 Lacrimal bones (pair)
7, 8 Zygomatic bones (pair)
9, 10 Nasal bones (pair)
11 Vomer bone
12, 13 Inferior nasal conchae (pair)
14 Mandible

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Figure 5.9 Human skull, lateral view.

Coronal suture Frontal bone

Parietal bone
Sphenoid bone

Temporal bone Ethmoid bone

Lambdoid Lacrimal bone

suture

Squamous suture
Nasal bone
Occipital bone

Zygomatic process Zygomatic bone

Maxilla
External acoustic meatus
Mastoid process
Alveolar processes
Styloid process
Mandible (body)
Mental foramen
Mandibular ramus

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Figure 5.10 Human skull, superior view (top of cranium removed).

Frontal bone

Cribriform plate
Ethmoid
Crista galli bone
Sphenoid
bone Optic canal

Sella turcica
Foramen ovale

Temporal bone

Jugular foramen

Internal
acoustic meatus

Parietal bone

Occipital bone

Foramen magnum

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Figure 5.11 Human skull, inferior view (mandible removed).

Maxilla
Hard (palatine process) Incisive fossa
palate
Palatine bone
Maxilla

Zygomatic bone
Sphenoid bone
Temporal bone (greater wing)
(zygomatic process)
Foramen ovale
Vomer

Mandibular fossa
Carotid canal
Styloid process

Mastoid process Jugular foramen

Temporal bone Occipital condyle

Parietal bone
Foramen magnum
Occipital bone
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Figure 5.12 Human skull, anterior and posterior views.

Coronal suture
Frontal bone
Parietal bone

Nasal bone
Superior orbital fissure
Sphenoid bone

Optic canal
Ethmoid bone
Temporal bone
Lacrimal bone
Zygomatic bone
Infraorbital foramen Middle nasal concha
of ethmoid bone
Maxilla
Inferior nasal concha

Vomer
Mandible

Alveolar processes
Mental foramen Sagittal suture

Anterior view
Parietal bone

Lambdoid suture
Occipital bone

Mastoid process
of temporal bone
Posterior view
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 Skull

 Paranasal sinuses
 Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal cavity
 Functions of paranasal sinuses
 Lighten the skull
 Amplify sounds made as we speak

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Figure 5.13a Paranasal sinuses.

Frontal
sinus
Ethmoid
sinus
Sphenoidal
sinus
Maxillary
sinus

(a) Anterior view

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Figure 5.13b Paranasal sinuses.

Frontal
sinus
Ethmoid
sinus
Sphenoidal
sinus
Maxillary
sinus

(b) Medial view

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 Skull

 Hyoid bone
 Closely related to mandible and temporal bones
 The only bone that does not articulate with another
bone
 Serves as a movable base for the tongue
 Aids in swallowing and speech

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Figure 5.14 Anatomical location and structure of the hyoid bone.

Greater horn
Lesser horn

Body

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 Vertebral Column (Spine)

 Vertebral column provides axial support

 Extends from skull to the pelvis
 26 vertebral bones are separated by
intervertebral discs
 7 cervical vertebrae are in the neck
 12 thoracic vertebrae are in the chest region
 5 lumbar vertebrae are associated with the lower back
 Sacrum (formed by fusion of 5 vertebrae)
 Coccyx (formed by fusion of 3–5 vertebrae)

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Figure 5.15 The vertebral column.
Anterior Posterior
1st cervical
vertebra (atlas) Cervical curvature
2nd cervical (concave) 7 vertebrae,
vertebra (axis) C1 – C7

1st thoracic
vertebra
Transverse
process
Spinous Thoracic curvature
process (convex) 12 vertebrae,
T1 – T12
Intervertebral
disc
Intervertebral
foramen
1st lumbar
vertebra Lumbar curvature
(concave) 5 vertebrae,
L1 – L5

Sacral curvature
(convex) 5 fused
vertebrae
Coccyx 4 fused
vertebrae
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 Vertebral Column (Spine)

 Primary curvatures
 Spinal curvatures of the thoracic and sacral regions
 Present from birth
 Form a C-shaped curvature in newborns
 Secondary curvatures
 Spinal curvatures of the cervical and lumbar regions
 Develop after birth
 Form an S-shaped curvature in adults

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Figure 5.16 The C-shaped spine typical of a newborn.

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 Vertebral Column (Spine)

 Parts of a typical vertebra

 Body (centrum)
 Vertebral arch
 Pedicle
 Lamina
 Vertebral foramen
 Transverse processes
 Spinous process
 Superior and inferior articular processes

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Figure 5.17 A typical vertebra, superior view.

Posterior
Lamina Vertebral
arch
Transverse Spinous
process process

Superior
articular
process
and
facet

Pedicle Vertebral
foramen
Body

Anterior
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Figure 5.18a Regional characteristics of vertebrae.

(a) ATLAS AND AXIS

Transverse Posterior
process arch

Anterior
arch
Superior view of atlas (C1)

Spinous
Transverse process
process Facet on
superior
articular
process
Dens
Body
Superior view of axis (C2)

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Figure 5.18b Regional characteristics of vertebrae.

(b) TYPICAL CERVICAL VERTEBRAE

Facet on superior Spinous

articular process process
Vertebral
foramen

Transverse
Transverse process
foramen Superior view
Superior
articular Body
process
Spinous
process
Transverse
process
Facet on inferior
articular process
Right lateral view

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Figure 5.18c Regional characteristics of vertebrae.

(c) THORACIC VERTEBRAE

Spinous process

Transverse Vertebral
process foramen

Facet Facet on
for rib superior
articular
process

Body
Superior view
Facet on Body
superior
articular
process

Facet on
transverse
process Costal facet
Spinous for rib
process

Right lateral view

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Figure 5.18d Regional characteristics of vertebrae.

(d) LUMBAR VERTEBRAE

Spinous process

Vertebral
foramen
Transverse
process

Facet on
superior
Body articular
process
Superior view

Superior Body
articular
process

Spinous Facet on inferior

process articular process
Right lateral view
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Figure 5.19 Sacrum and coccyx, posterior view.

Superior Auricular
Ala Sacral articular surface
canal process

Body

Median
Sacrum sacral
crest

Posterior
sacral
foramina
Sacral
Coccyx hiatus

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 Thoracic Cage

 Bony thorax, or thoracic cage, protects organs of

the thoracic cavity
 Consists of three parts
1. Sternum
2. Ribs
 True ribs (pairs 1–7)
 False ribs (pairs 8–12)
 Floating ribs (pairs 11–12)
3. Thoracic vertebrae

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Figure 5.20a The bony thorax (thoracic cage).

T1 vertebra
Jugular notch
Clavicular notch

Manubrium
Sternal angle
Body
Xiphisternal Sternum
True joint
ribs Xiphoid
(1–7) process

False
ribs
(8–12)
Intercostal
spaces
L1
Floating vertebra Costal cartilage
ribs (11, 12)
(a)
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Figure 5.20b The bony thorax (thoracic cage).

T2 Jugular
T3 notch
T4 Sternal
angle

Heart

T9 Xiphisternal
joint

(b)

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 Appendicular Skeleton

 Composed of 126 bones

 Limbs (appendages)
 Pectoral girdle
 Pelvic girdle

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Figure 5.8a The human skeleton.

Cranium
Skull Facial bones

Clavicle
Thoracic cage Scapula
(ribs and Sternum
sternum) Rib
Humerus
Vertebra
Vertebral
Radius
column
Ulna
Sacru
m Carpals

Phalanges
Metacarpals
Femur
Patella

Tibia
Fibula

Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
(a) Anterior view
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Figure 5.8b The human skeleton.

Cranium
Bones of
pectoral
Clavicle girdle
Scapula
Sternum Upper
Rib limb
Humerus
Vertebr
R
a adius Bones of
Ulna pelvic
Carpals girdle

Phalanges
Metacarpals
Femur
Lower
Tibia limb
Fibula

(b) Posterior view

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 Bones of the Shoulder Girdle

 Also called pectoral girdle

 Composed of two bones that attach the upper
limb to the axial skeletal
1. Clavicle
2. Scapula
 Light, poorly reinforced girdle
 Allows the upper limb a exceptional flexibility

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Figure 5.21a Bones of the shoulder girdle.

Acromio-
clavicular Clavicle
joint

Scapula

(a) Articulated right shoulder (pectoral)

girdle showing the relationship to
bones of the thorax and sternum
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Figure 5.21b Bones of the shoulder girdle.

Posterior
Sternal (medial)
end

Acromial
Anterior
(lateral) end
Superior view

Acromial end Sternal end

Anterior

Posterior

Inferior view
(b) Right clavicle, superior and inferior views

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Figure 5.21c Bones of the shoulder girdle.

Coracoid process
Suprascapular notch

Superior Acromion
angle

Glenoid cavity
at lateral angle
Spine

Medial
border
Lateral border

(c) Right scapula, posterior aspect

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Figure 5.21d Bones of the shoulder girdle.

Acromion
Suprascapular notch
Superior border
Coracoid
process Superior
angle
Glenoid
cavity
Lateral
angle

Lateral
(axillary) Medial
border (vertebral)
border

Inferior angle

(d) Right scapula, anterior aspect

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Bones of the Upper Limbs

 Humerus
 Forms the arm
 Single bone
 Proximal end articulation
 Head articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula
 Distal end articulation
 Trochlea and capitulum articulate with the bones of the
forearm

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.22a Bones of the right arm and forearm.

Greater Head of
tubercle humerus
Lesser
tubercle Anatomical
neck
Intertubercular
sulcus

Deltoid
tuberosity

Radial
fossa Medial
epicondyle
Coronoid
fossa
Capitulum Trochlea
(a)
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Figure 5.22b Bones of the right arm and forearm.
Head of
humerus

Anatomical
neck Surgical
neck

Radial
groove
Deltoid
tuberosity

Medial
epicondyle Olecranon
fossa

Lateral
Trochlea epicondyle
(b)
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Bones of the Upper Limbs

 The forearm has two bones

1. Ulna—medial bone in anatomical position
 Proximal end articulation
 Coronoid process and olecranon articulate with the
humerus
2. Radius—lateral bone in anatomical position
 Proximal end articulation
 Head articulates with the capitulum of the humerus

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.22c Bones of the right arm and forearm.
Trochlear
notch
Olecranon
Head
Coronoid
process
Neck
Radial Proximal
tuberosity radioulnar
joint

Radius

Ulna

Inter-
osseous
membrane

Ulnar
Radial
Distal styloid
styloid
process process
radioulnar
joint
(c)
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Bones of the Upper Limbs

 Hand
 Carpals—wrist bones
 8 bones arranged in two rows of 4 bones in each hand
 Metacarpals—palm bones
 5 per hand
 Phalanges—fingers and thumb
 14 phalanges in each hand
 In each finger, there are 3 bones
 In the thumb, there are only 2 bones

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.23 Bones of the right hand, anterior view.

Distal
Middle
Phalanges
(fingers)

Proximal

4 3 2
Metacarpals 5
(palm) 1

Hamate Trapezium
Carpals Pisiform Trapezoid
(wrist) Triquetrum Scaphoid
Lunate Capitate
Ulna
Radius
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

 Formed by two coxal (ossa coxae) bones

 Composed of three pairs of fused bones
1. Ilium
2. Ischium
3. Pubis
 Pelvic girdle = two coxal bones, sacrum
 Pelvis = two coxal bones, sacrum, coccyx

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

 The total weight of the upper body rests on the

pelvis
 Pelvis protects several organs
 Reproductive organs
 Urinary bladder
 Part of the large intestine

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.24a The bony pelvis.

Iliac crest
Sacroiliac
joint

llium

Coxal bone
Sacrum
(or hip bone) Pelvic brim

Pubis Coccyx Ischial spine

Acetabulum
Ischium Pubic symphysis

Pubic arch
(a)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.24b The bony pelvis.

Ilium
Ala
Iliac crest
Posterior
superior
iIiac Anterior superior
spine iliac spine
Posterior
inferior Anterior inferior
iIiac spine iliac spine

Greater sciatic
notch Acetabulum
Ischial body
Body of pubis
Ischial spine
Pubis
Ischial
tuberosity Inferior pubic
ramus
Ischium
Obturator
Ischial ramus foramen
(b)
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

 The female’s pelvis

 Inlet is larger and more circular
 Shallower, on the whole, and the bones are lighter and
thinner
 Ilia flare more laterally
 Sacrum is shorter and less curved
 Ischial spines are shorter and farther apart; thus, the
outlet is larger
 Pubic arch is more rounded because the angle of the
pubic arch is greater

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.24c The bony pelvis.

False pelvis

Inlet of
true
pelvis

Pelvic brim

Pubic arch
(less than 90º)

False pelvis

Inlet of
true
pelvis

Pelvic brim

Pubic arch
(more than 90º)
(c)
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Bones of the Lower Limbs

 Femur—thigh bone
 The heaviest, strongest bone in the body
 Proximal end articulation
 Head articulates with the acetabulum of the coxal (hip)
bone
 Distal end articulation
 Lateral and medial condyles articulate with the tibia in
the lower leg

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.25a Bones of the right thigh and leg.

Surgical
neck
Head
Inter-
trochanteric
line Lesser trochanter

Lateral
epicondyle
Medial
epicondyle
Patellar
surface
(a)
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Figure 5.25b Bones of the right thigh and leg.

Greater
Head trochanter
Inter-
trochanteric
Lesser trochanter
crest
Gluteal tuberosity

Intercondylar
fossa
Medial
Lateral
condyle condyle

(b)
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Bones of the Lower Limbs

 The lower leg has two bones

1. Tibia—shinbone; larger and medially oriented
 Proximal end articulation
 Medial and lateral condyles articulate with the femur to
form the knee joint
 Distal end articulation
 Medial malleolus forms the inner part of the ankle
2. Fibula—thin and sticklike; lateral to the tibia
 Has no role in forming the knee joint
 Distal end articulation
 Lateral malleolus forms the outer part of the ankle

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.25c Bones of the right thigh and leg.
Intercondylar
eminence
Lateral Medial
condyle condyle
Head Tibial
tuberosity
Proximal
tibiofibular
joint
Interosseous
membrane

Anterior
border
Fibula

Tibia

Distal
tibiofibular
joint

Medial
Lateral malleolus
malleolus
(c)
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Bones of the Lower Limbs

 Foot
 Tarsals—7 bones
 Two largest tarsals are the:
 Calcaneus (heel bone)
 Talus
 Metatarsals—5 bones form the sole of the foot
 Phalanges—14 bones form the toes

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.26 Bones of the right foot, superior view.

Phalanges:
Distal
Middle
Proximal

Tarsals:
Medial Metatarsals
cuneiform
Tarsals:
Intermediate
cuneiform Lateral
cuneiform
Navicular
Cuboid

Talus

Calcaneus

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Bones of the Lower Limbs

 Arches of the feet

 Bones of the foot are arranged to form three strong
arches
 Two longitudinal
 One transverse

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.27 Arches of the foot.

Medial longitudinal arch

Transverse arch

Lateral longitudinal
arch

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Joints

 Joints are articulations

 Occur where two or more bones meet
 Functions of joints
 Hold bones together securely
 Allow for mobility
 Two ways joints are classified
 Functionally
 Structurally

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Joints

 Functional joint classifications

 Synarthroses
 Immovable joints
 Amphiarthroses
 Slightly movable joints
 Diarthroses
 Freely movable joints

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Joints

 Structural joint classifications

 Fibrous joints
 Generally immovable
 Cartilaginous joints
 Immovable or slightly movable
 Synovial joints
 Freely movable

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Joints

 Fibrous joints
 Bones are united by fibrous tissue
 Types
 Sutures
 Immobile
 Syndesmoses
 Allow more movement than sutures but still immobile
 Found on the distal ends of tibia and fibula
 Gomphoses
 Immobile
 Found where the teeth meet the facial bones

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.28a Types of joints.

Fibrous joints

Fibrous
connective
tissue
(a) Suture

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.28b Types of joints.

Fibrous joints

Tibia

Fibula
Fibrous
connective
tissue
(b) Syndesmosis
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Joints

 Cartilaginous joints
 Bones are connected by fibrocartilage
 Types
 Synchrondrosis
 Immobile
 Found in epiphyseal plates of growing long bones
 Symphysis
 Slightly movable
 Found in the pubic symphysis, intervertebral joints

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.28c Types of joints.

Cartilaginous joints

First rib

Hyaline
cartilage

Sternum

(c) Synchondrosis

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.28d Types of joints.

Cartilaginous joints

Vertebrae

Fibrocartilage

(d) Symphysis

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.28e Types of joints.

Cartilaginous joints

Pubis
Fibro-
cartilage

(e) Symphysis
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Joints

 Synovial joints
 Articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity
 Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity
 Four distinguishing features of synovial joints
1. Articular cartilage
2. Articular capsule
3. Joint cavity
4. Reinforcing ligaments

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.28f Types of joints.

Synovial joints

Scapula
Articular
capsule

Articular
(hyaline)
cartilage
Humerus

(f) Multiaxial joint

(shoulder joint)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.28g Types of joints.

Synovial joints

Humerus
Articular
(hyaline)
cartilage
Articular
capsule
Radius

Ulna
(g) Uniaxial joint
(elbow joint)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.28h Types of joints.

Synovial joints

Ulna
Radius
Articular
capsule
Carpals

(h) Biaxial joint

(intercarpal joints of hand)
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Joints

 Synovial joints (continued)

 Bursae—flattened fibrous sacs
 Lined with synovial membranes
 Filled with synovial fluid
 Not actually part of the joint
 Tendon sheath
 Elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Joints

 Types of synovial joints based on shape

 Plane joint
 Hinge joint
 Pivot joint
 Condylar joint
 Saddle joint
 Ball-and-socket joint

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.29 General structure of a synovial joint.

Acromion of
scapula

Ligament Joint cavity

containing
Bursa synovial fluid
Ligament
Articular
(hyaline)
Tendon cartilage
sheath
Synovial membrane

Tendon of Fibrous layer of

biceps muscle the
articular capsule
Humerus

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.30a Types of synovial joints.

Nonaxial
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Multiaxial
(f)

(a) Plane joint

(b)

(c)

(a)
(e)
(d)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.30b Types of synovial joints.

Nonaxial
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Multiaxial
(f)

(b)

Humerus
(c)
Ulna

(a)
(e) (b) Hinge joint
(d)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.30c Types of synovial joints.

Nonaxial
Uniaxial Ulna
Biaxial Radius
Multiaxial
(f)

(c) Pivot joint

(b)

(c)

(a)
(e)
(d)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.30d Types of synovial joints.

Nonaxial
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Multiaxial
(f)

Metacarpal
(b)
Phalanx

(c)
(d) Condylar joint

(a)
(e)
(d)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.30e Types of synovial joints.

Nonaxial Carpal
Uniaxial Metacarpal #1
Biaxial
Multiaxial
(f)

(e) Saddle joint

(b)

(c)

(a)
(e)
(d)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.30f Types of synovial joints.

Nonaxial
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Multiaxial
(f)

Head of
humerus
(b)

(c)
Scapula

(f) Ball-and-socket joint

(a)
(e)
(d)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton

 Birth to adulthood
 First “long bones” of a fetus are hyaline cartilage
 Earliest “flat bones” of the fetal skull are fibrous
membranes
 As fetus grows, all bone models are converted to bone

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.31 Ossification centers in the skeleton of a 12-week-old fetus are indicated by the darker areas.

Parietal
bone
Frontal
bone
of skull Occipital
bone
Mandible
Clavicle
Scapula

Radius
Ulna
Humerus

Femur

Tibia
Ribs

Vertebra
Hip bone
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton

 Fetal skull
 Fontanels are fibrous membranes connecting the
cranial bones
 Known as “soft spots”
 Allow skull compression during birth
 Allow the brain to grow during later pregnancy and
infancy
 Usually ossify by 2 years of age

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.32a The fetal skull.

Anterior
fontanel
Frontal bone

Parietal
bone

Posterior fontanel
Occipital
(a) bone

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.32b The fetal skull.

Anterior fontanel
Sphenoidal
Parietal bone fontanel
Frontal
Posterior bone
fontanel

Occipital
bone
Mastoid
fontanel
Temporal bone
(b)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton

 Growth of cranium after birth is related to brain

growth
 Increase in size of the facial skeleton follows tooth
development and enlargement of the respiratory
passageways

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton

 Size of cranium in relationship to body

 2 years old—skull is three-fourths the size of adult
skull
 8 or 9 years old—skull is near adult in size and
proportion
 Between ages 6 and 11, the face grows out from the
skull

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton

 Skeletal changes
 At birth, the head and trunk are proportionately much
longer than the lower limbs
 During puberty:
 Female pelvis broadens
 Entire male skeleton becomes more robust
 By the end of adolescence:
 Epiphyseal plates become fully ossified

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.33a Differences in the growth rates for some parts of the body compared to others determine body proportions.

Human newborn Human adult

(a)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.33b Differences in the growth rates for some parts of the body compared to others determine body proportions.

Newborn 2 yrs. 5 yrs. 15 yrs. Adult

(b)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton

 Older adults
 Osteoporosis
 Bone-thinning disease afflicting:
 50 percent of women over age 65
 20 percent of men over age 70
 Disease makes bones fragile, and bones can easily
fracture
 Vertebral collapse results in kyphosis (also known as
“dowager’s hump”)
 Estrogen aids in health and normal density of a female
skeleton

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.34 Osteoporosis.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 5.35 Vertebral collapse due to osteoporosis.

Age 40 Age 60 Age 70

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.