Mathematical Reasoning

Methods of Proof
 This Lecture

Now we have learnt the basics in logic.

We are going to apply the logical rules in proving mathematical theorems.

• Direct proof

• Contrapositive

• Proof by contradiction

• Proof by cases
“Proof:" We use these steps, where a and b are two equal positive
integers.
Step Reason
1.a = b Given
2.a2 = ab Multiply both sides of (1) by a
3.a2 −b2 = ab−b2 Subtract b2 from both sides of (2)
4.(a−b)(a+b)= b(a−b) Factor both sides of (3)
5.a+b = b Divide both sides of (4) by a−b
6.2b = b Replace a by b in (5) because a = b and
simplify
7.2=1 Divide both sides of (6) by b

What is wrong with this “proof?”

 Basic Definitions

An integer n is an even number

if there exists an integer k such that n = 2k.

An integer n is an odd number

if there exists an integer k such that n = 2k+1.
 Proving an Implication

Goal: If P, then Q. (P implies Q)

Method 1: Write assume P, then show that Q logically follows.

The sum of two even numbers is even.

Proof x = 2m, y = 2n
x+y = 2m+2n
= 2(m+n)
 Direct Proofs

If n is an odd integer, then n2 is odd.

Proof n = 2k + 1
n2 = (2k + 1) 2 = 4k2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1.
By the definition of an odd integer, we can
conclude that n2 is an odd integer

if m and n are both perfect squares, then nm is also a perfect square .

Proof m = a2 and n = b2 for some integers a and b

Then mn = a2 b2
= (a a) (b b) = (ab)(ab)
= (ab)2
So mn is a perfect square.
 This Lecture

• Direct proof

• Contrapositive

• Proof by contradiction

• Proof by cases
 Proving an Implication

Goal: If P, then Q. (P implies Q)

Method 1: Write assume P, then show that Q logically follows.

Claim: If r is irrational, then √r is irrational.

How to begin with?

What if I prove “If √r is rational, then r is rational”, is it equivalent?

Yes, this is equivalent, because it is the contrapositive of the statement,

so proving “if P, then Q” is equivalent to proving “if not Q, then not P”.
So, p → q is equivalent to its contrapositive, ¬q → ¬p.
 Rational Number

R is rational  there are integers a and b such that

numerator

and b ≠ 0.

denominator

Is 0.281 a rational number? Yes, 281/1000

Is 0 a rational number? Yes, 0/1

If m and n are non-zero integers, is (m+n)/mn a rational Yes

number?
Yes, a/b+c/d=(ad+bc)/bd
Is the sum of two rational numbers a rational number?
Note that 100x-x=12, and so x=12/99.
Is x=0.12121212…… a rational number?
 Proving the Contrapositive

Goal: If P, then Q. (P implies Q)

Method 2: Prove the contrapositive, i.e. prove “not Q implies not P”.

Claim: If r is irrational, then √r is irrational.

Proof: We shall prove the contrapositive –

“if √r is rational, then r is rational.”

Since √r is rational, √r = a/b for some integers a,b.

So r = a2/b2. Since a,b are integers, a2,b2 are integers.

Therefore, r is rational. Q.E.D.

(Q.E.D.) "which was to be demonstrated", or “quite easily done”. 

 Proving an “if and only if”

Goal: Prove that two statements P and Q are “logically equivalent”,

that is, one holds if and only if the other holds.

Example: For an integer n, n is even if and only if n 2 is even.

Method 1a: Prove P implies Q and Q implies P.

Method 1b: Prove P implies Q and not P implies not Q.

Method 2: Construct a chain of if and only if statement.

 Proof the Contrapositive

For an integer n, n is even if and only if n2 is even.

Method 1a: Prove P implies Q and Q implies P.

Statement: If n is even, then n2 is even

Proof: n = 2k

n2 = 4k2

Statement: If n2 is even, then n is even

Proof: n2 = 2k

n = √(2k)

??
 Proof the Contrapositive

For an integer n, n is even if and only if n2 is even.

Method 1b: Prove P implies Q and not Q implies not p.

Statement: If n2 is even, then n is even

Contrapositive: If n is odd, then n2 is odd.

Proof (the contrapositive):

Since n is an odd number, n = 2k+1 for some integer k.

So n2 = (2k+1)2

= (2k)2 + 2(2k) + 1 = 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1

So n2 is an odd number.
Prove that if n is an integer and 3n+2 is odd, then n is odd

Proof by contrapositive:
“If 3n+2 is odd, then n is odd” is false; namely,
Contrapositive: If n is even, then 3n+2 is even.
assume that n is even.
Then, by the definition of an even integer, n = 2k for some integer
k.
Substituting 2k for n, we find that
3n+2 = 3(2k)+2 = 6k +2 = 2(3k+1).

This tells us that 3n+2 is even (because it is a multiple of 2), and

therefore not odd.
 This Lecture

• Direct proof

• Contrapositive

• Proof by contradiction

• Proof by cases
 Proof by Contradiction

PF
P
To prove P, you prove that not P would lead to ridiculous result,
and so P must be true.
 Proof by Contradiction, Example

Prove that if n is an integer and n3+5 is odd, then n is even

•Rephrased: If n3+5 is odd, then n is even

Assume p is true and q is false, Assume that n3+5 is odd, and n is odd

n=2k+1 for some integer k (definition of odd numbers)

n3+5 = (2k+1)3+5 = 8k3+12k2+6k+6 = 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3)

As 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3) is 2 times an integer, it must be even

Contradiction!
 Proof by Contradiction

Theorem: 2 is irrational.

Proof (by contradiction): 2

Solution: Let p be the proposition “√2 is irrational.”
we suppose that ¬p is true. So, ¬p = √2 is rational

If √2 is rational, there exist integers a and b with

√2 = a/b,
where b != 0 and a and b have no common factors
a2
2 2 so, 2b2 = a2
b
By the definition of an even integer it follows that a 2 is even.

if the square of an integer is even, then the integer itself must be even.

a2 is even, so a must also be even,

by the definition of an even integer, a = 2c for some integer c.

2b2 = a2
Thus, 2b2 = 4c2. Dividing both sides of this equation by 2
b2 = 2c2.

By the definition of even, this means that b2 is even. So, b must be

even as well.
assumption of ¬p leads to the equation √2 = a/b, where a and b have no
common factors, that is, 2 divides both a and b. So √2 is rational that is
false.

So, √2 is irrational.
 This Lecture

• Direct proof

• Contrapositive

• Proof by contradiction

• Proof by cases
 Proof by Cases

e.g. want to prove a nonzero number always has a positive square.

x is positive or x is negative

if x is positive, then x2 > 0.

if x is negative, then x2 > 0.

x2 > 0.
 Proof by Cases

Show a statement is true by showing all

possible cases are true

Thus, you are showing a statement of the

form:
 p1  p2  ...  pn   q
is true by showing that:

  p1  p2  ...  pn   q    p1  q    p2  q   ...   pn  q  
 Summary

We have learnt different techniques to prove mathematical statements.

• Direct proof

• Contrapositive

• Proof by contradiction

• Proof by cases

Next time we will focus on a very important technique, proof by induction.