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Fundamentals of IT
 Fundamentals of Information Technology

INFORMATION: Consists of facts and items of

knowledge. It can be anything that has meaning
to people.
Usually information is expressed in words and
numbers. However, it can be expressed in other
forms, such as sounds, measurements or pictures.

EXAMPLE:
•A list of names and addresses
•The contents of a letter
•The words of a song
•A map
 DATA: Is information in which it can be
processed.
EXAMPLE
•A word processed letter stored on a floppy disc
•A song written as sheet music so that it can be
played.
•A telephone conversation converted to electrical
signals to be sent down the wires.
51
40 47
39
32 28
 PROCESSING OF INFORMATION

 Information processing is the organization,

manipulation and distribution of information.
 Sorting a list of names and address into
alphabetical order.
 Producing a letter with a word processor,
saving it on floppy disc and then sending it by
electronic mail.
 Transmitting a conversation over the phone
system.
 DATA PROCESSING CYCLE
* Data received by a computer via its input
devices
* Stored in memory prior to processing
* Data get processed
* Results sent to the output devices

Processing

Memory
 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

 Information technology (IT) is all types of

equipment and programs which are used
in the processing of information.
 ex:
 A computer.
 A calculator.
 A fax machine.
 A telephone.
Uses Of Information Technology
 The term ‘information technology is also
used to refer to the uses of this
technology. The main types of use involved
are:
 Presentation of information.
 Handling information.
 Searching data, sorting it into order and
analyzing
 Producing modules of real situations
 Data communication.
 Control and measurement
 DIGITAL AND ANALOGUE DATA

A device is digital if some quantity in it can be

set to a number of different separate values
or states. Data is then represented by
combinations by these values. Usually the
devices are binary and data is represented as
a succession of 1s and 0s.

An analogue device is one in which data is

represented by some quantity which is
continuously variable. The value of a data
item at a given time is represented by the
size of the quantity measured on a fixed
scale.
 A COMPUTER

A Computer is a programmable, multipurpose

machine that accepts data (e.g. raw data,
facts & figures) and processes, or
manipulates it into information we can use,
such as summaries or totals

E.g. An Automated Teller Machine (ATM)

computes the deposits and withdrawals to
give you the total in your account.
 A COMPUTER (ISO)
Computer: (ISO) A programmable functional
unit that consists of one or more associated
processing units and peripheral equipment, that
is controlled by internally stored programs and
that can perform substantial computation,
including numerous arithmetic operations or
logic operations, without human intervention
during a run.

A computer may be a stand-alone unit or may

consist of several interconnected units.
 PHYSICAL COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER
The physical components of a computer
system such as the computer itself, its inner
components and peripherals are called
hardware.
An example of Motherboard
 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
1.3000 BC – The abacus: a rudimentary first
computing device developed.

1642 – Blaise Pascal built the first mechanical

digital calculator Pascaline.
3. 1822 – Charles Babbage invented a Difference
Engine with a mechanical memory to store
results.

4. 1840 – Ada, the first programmer suggested

binary data storage rather than decimal.

5. 1880 – Dr.Herman Hollerith developed the

punched card that would contain data coded in
form of punched holes.
6. 1939 – Dr. John Vincent Atanasoft produced
the first prototype electronic computer.
7. 1944 – Aitken built Mark 1 the first automatic,
sequence controlled calculator; used by military
to compute ballistic data.
8. 1947 – Mauchy and Eckert built ENIAC – 2nd
Electronic digital computer.
9. 1949 – Maurice, Eckert and Von Neumann built
EDVAC the -1st stored program Computer.

10. 1950 – Turing built Ace – 1st programmable

computer.
11. 1951 – Mauchy and Eckert built UNIVAC 1 –
1st commercially sold.

12. 1960 – Gene Amdahl designed IBM

System/360 mainframe computer – 1st
general purpose digital using Integrated
circuits.
13. 1963 – Olsen with Digital Equipment
Corporation produced PDP-1 – 1st Mini
computer.
14. Ted Hoff of Intel Corporation produced
microprocessor Intel 4004.

15. 1975 – H.Edward Roberts – 1st Micro-

computer.

16. 1976 – Seymour Cray CRAY-1 Super-

computer.
17. 1977 – Stephen Wonzniak and Steven Jobs
built first Apple Microcomputer.

18. 1980 – Lower cost Personal Computers.

 Technical Evolution of Computers
• Increase in speed

• Increase in storage capacity

• Increase in reliability
• Reduction in system cost

Period Circuitry Input Output Storage Language Typical

computers

1951- Vacuum Punched Punched Magnetic Assembly UNIVAC-1

1959 Tubes cards & cards Tapes
magnetic
tapes
1959- Transistors Punched Punched Magnetic High level IBM 1400
1965 cards & cards Tapes languages
magnetic FORTRAN
tapes
1965- Integrated Keyboards Monitors Magnetic PASCAL IBM
1971 Circuits disks System/360
 Microprocessor development
Model Model Year Speed (MHz)
(Intel) (Motorola) (roughly)
8088 8
8086 68000 4–8
80186 68010 16
80286 68020 1982 20
80386DX 68030 1986 40
80486dx4 68040 1990 66 – 75
Pentium Power PC 1997 166/200
MMX
Pentium II Power PC G3/G4 1997 350 – 450
Pentium III 2000 1200
Pentium IV 2001 1800 - 3200
 Block Diagram of a Modern PC

CPU Storage/Input Internal Memory

ALU RAM (Read/Write) ROM (Read Only)

Internal
Communic
ation BUS SYSTEM
Registers
Control
Unit Input Interface Output Interface

Input Devices Output Devices

Keyboard VDU(Monitor)
Mouse/Joystick Printer
Light pen Speaker etc.
Scanner
Infra-red ray
External Storage : Hard Disk,
Video Camera Floppy Disk, CDROM, Magnetic Tape
Microphone etc.
Computer Organization and Architecture

ALU
Control

Processor
Main
Input Output
Memory

Storage
 COMPONENTS OF A MICROPROCESSOR

Processor:- The heart of any computer system. It

consists of ALU, control elements and small
memory units called registers.
ALU:- All calculations and all comparisons take
place in this unit.
Control Unit:- This interprets any instruction it
receives from memory and directs the sequence
of events Necessary to execute the instruction.
CU uses a system clock which synchronizes all
tasks by sending out electrical pulses.
 INPUT DEVICES

 Input devices are used to feed data and

instructions to the computer system.
 Input devices provide the interface
between the outside world and the
computer system for this purpose.
 Input Devices
Mouse

Tracker ball
Touch sensitive pad

Light pen
Touch screen

Graphics tablets (digitizers)

Magnetic stripe reader

Barcode readers
Optical character readers (OCR)

Optical mark readers (OMR)

Microphone

Voice recognition
Electronic point of sale terminal
(EPOS)

Electronic fund transfer at point of

sale (EFTPOS)
Video digitizer

Scanner
Digital cameras
 Output Devices
Output devices provide results in a suitable form after
data processing. In many cases this will be in the form of
hard copy or on a screen.

Liquid crystal display (LCD) screens

Laser printers

Inkjet printers
Color inkjet printers

Color laser printers

Dot-matrix printers

Graph plotters
 Storage of data

The number of instructions and amount of data

a computer can store in its memory is measured
in bytes. A single character can be stored in one
byte.
8 bits = 1 Byte( a bit can be either 0 or 1 )
1024 B = 1 Kilobyte
1024 KB = 1 Megabyte
1024 MB = 1 Gigabytes
1024 GB = 1 Terabyte
 Memory (main store)
There are two types of memory
 ROM (Read-Only Memory)
 RAM (Random Access Memory)
Memory is the name given to a group of chips
inside the processing unit. Here data is held
temporarily whilst processing takes place.

Cache Memory
Cache is an area of memory that holds
frequently accessed data or program
instructions for the purpose of speeding a
computer system’s performance.
Disk Cache Disk cache is a portion of a
computer’s RAM set aside for temporarily
holding information read from disk. It holds
information that either has recently been
requested from disk or has previously been
written to disk.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only
Memory) This is a memory chip whose contents
are normally fixed. However the chip may have
its contents erased by the action of ultra-violet
light and may then be programmed
EPROM PROM . EEPROM
RAM
The data in RAM is held only temporarily,
which means that data disappears when the
power is switched off. RAM is often called
volatile memory. RAM is used to hold both
data and programs during processing.

Both RAM & ROM are often referred to as IAS

(Immediate Access Store).
 Magnetic media
Floppy disks – The floppy disk is
in a hard case the disk inside is
floppy. Magnetic disks store
binary (a series of 0s and 1s)
data as a magnetic pattern on Normally 1.44MB
the disk surface. storage capacity

Optical discs
CD-ROM drives – The data is
stored on the disk digitally and a
laser beam is used to read the
data off the disk. Because light is Normally 600-700MB
storage capacity
used to read the disk. CD-ROMs
are read-only disks.
CD-R/CD-RW – A CD-R has a read/write capability.
Standard CD-R discs can be written to only once.
But there is a type of disc called CD-RW, these
discs can be written, erased and rewritten many
times, with suitable drives.
Magneto-Optical Discs – MO devices write data to a
disc with the help of a laser beam and a magnetic
write-head.
Digital versatile discs (DVDs) – are used to store
lots of data. Any application software that needs
six to seven CD-ROMs for installation could be
replaced by a single DVD.
Blue Ray Discs
 Backup devices
Tape streamers – are devices used to back up the
data contained on hard drives.
Zip drives –this uses high storage capacity floppy
disks which are slightly larger and twice as thick as
normal floppies. They can typically store 100MB.
Jazz drives – is a removable disk drive which is very
fast at transferring data. Each disk can hold up to 2GB
of data.
 Classification of Computers
1. Classification according to the logic used
Analog Computers:- These computers recognize data as
a continuous measurement of a physical property
( voltage, pressure, speed and temperature).
Example: Automobile speedometer
Digital Computers:- These are high speed programmable
electronic devices that perform mathematical
calculations, compare values and store results. They
recognize data by counting discrete signal representing
either a high or low voltage state of electricity.
Digital computers are grouped into two categories:
o General purpose computers
o Special purpose digital computers
2. Classification according to size

Super Computers:- are widely used in scientific applications

such as aerodynamic design simulation, processing of
geological data.

Mainframe Computers:- are usually slower, less powerful and

less expensive than supercomputers. A technique that
allows many people at terminals, to access the same
computer at one time is called time sharing. Mainframes are
used by banks and many business to update inventory etc.
Minicomputers:- are smaller than mainframe, general
purpose computers, and give computing power without
adding the prohibitive expenses associated with larger
systems. It is generally easier to use.

Small Computer Systems:- is the smallest, least

expensive of all the computers. Micro computers have
smallest memory and less power, are physically smaller
and permit fewer peripherals to be attached.
 Software
This means computer programs. Software as a whole can
be divided into a number of categories based on the types
of work done by programs:
 Operating systems
 System software
 Compilers and Interpreters
 Application software:- this addresses the multitude of
tasks for which people use computers.
 Development software:- this provides programmers
with the tools they need to write programs, and generally
called computer languages.
 Communication software:- this enables groups of
computers to communicate.
 COMPUTER

HARDWARE
SOFTWARE

PACKAGES
LANGUAGES WORD, EXCEL,
POWERPOINT, LOTUS

LOW LEVEL LANGUAGES HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE, PASCAL, FOXPRO
C, C++ JAVA, VB
 Introduction to Communication
Data communication is the process of sending data
electronically from one computer or similar device
to another. Linking one computer to another
permits the power and resources of that computer
to be tapped. It also makes possible the updating
and sharing of data at different locations.
• Computers that are located in the same room or
office building, can communicate data through a
direct cable link.
• Computers located far away use a special form of
data communication – telecommunication or
telegraph.
 Nuts and Bolts of a Network

A network is any collection of independent computers

that communicate with one another over a shared
network medium.
 Network Topologies

Local Area Network (LAN) - LANs are

networks usually confined to a geographic
area, such as a single building or a college
campus. LANs can be small, linking as few as
three computers, but often link hundreds of
computers.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) - MAN is

basically a bigger version of a LAN and
normally uses similar technology. It might
cover a group of near by corporate offices or a
city and might be either private or public.
Wide Area Network (WAN) - Often a network
is located in multiple physical places. Wide
area networking combines multiple LANs
that are geographically separate. This is
accomplished by connecting the different
LANs using services such as dedicated
leased phone lines, dial-up phone lines
(both synchronous and asynchronous),
satellite links, and data packet carrier
services.
 Local Area Network (LAN)

Star topology Ring topology Mesh topology

Bus topology
 Wide Area Network (WAN)

Router
Router

Sub net
Subnet

WAN interconnects computers (hosts), which

are located geographically at long distances. The
hosts are connected by communication subnet.
The job of the subnet is to carry messages from
host to host.
 The routers are specialized computers. When
data arrive on incoming line, the router chooses
an outgoing line to forward them on. The
collection of communication lines and routers
(but not hosts) forms the subnet.

 Many different networks, including LANs, MANs

and WANs are together form an Internet.
Transmission media
Twisted pair
A basic twisted-pair cable consists of two strands of
copper wire twisted together. This twisting reduces
the sensitivity of the cable to electro magnetic
interference.
Shielded twisted pair
Shielded twisted-pair cabling consists of one or
more twisted pairs of cables enclosed in a foil
wrap and woven copper shielding. The shield
further reduces the tendency of the cable to
radiate EMI and thus reduces the cable’s
sensitivity to outside interference.
Unshielded twisted pair
Unshielded twisted-pair cable doesn’t incorporate a
braided shield into its structure.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cables were the first cable types
used in LANs. Gets its name because two
conductors share a common axis; the cable
is most frequently referred to as coax.
Fiber Optics
The centre conductor of a fiber-optic cable is a
fiber that consists of highly refined glass or
plastic designed to transmit light signals with
little loss. A glass core supports a longer
cabling distance, but a plastic core is typically
easier to work with. The fiber is coated with a
cladding that reflects signals back into the fiber
to reduce signal loss. A plastic sheath protects
the fiber.
 Microwave

Down link
Uplink

As shown in figure, microwave communication can take two forms: terrestrial

(ground) links and satellite links. The frequencies and technologies employed by
these two forms are similar, but as you’ll see, distinct differences exist between
them.
 Connectivity Devices
Hubs
The hub's major function is to replicate data it receives from one device
attached to it to all others.
Repeaters
Any electrical signal reaching the repeater from one segment, will
be amplified and retransmitted to the other segment. Using
repeaters slows the signal's propagation, and thus the amount of
repeaters should be limited.
Bridges
Bridges are used to increase the number of addressable nodes on a network or
to link two geographically distant but similar networks.

Routers
A major feature of a router is that it chooses the best route between networks
that may have multiple paths between them. IP addressing and subnet
masking are used to route packets
 Gateways
Gateways interface two dissimilar networks. Gateways translate one network
protocol into another, thus overcoming both hardware and software
incompatibilities.

Modems
A modem is a device that converts digital data originating from a computer to
analog signals used by voice communication networks, such as the telephone
system. A modem may also convert analogue data originating from a (say, a
telephone line) to digital data for use by a computer.
Applications of Data Communication and Computer Networks
• Internet

• Teller and point-of-sale terminals

• Airlines, car-rentals, railway reservation systems, and hotel reservation
systems
Advantages of Computer Networks
• Sharing of expensive resources (e.g., A Laser printer, DVD drive)

• Sharing of data bases and other software

• Communication among different computer systems
• Transfer of multimedia files
• Faster transfer of data
Disadvantages of Computer Networks
• Initial cost

• Security of information (viruses, hackers, ..)

• System failures