Data Collection

Primary data: it is original, problem or project specific and collected

for serving a particular purpose. Its authenticity or relevance is
reasonably high.

Secondary data: it is not topical or research-specific. It can be

economically and quickly collected by the decision-maker in a short
span of time.
 Research application of Secondary data
• Problem identification and formulation stage

• Hypotheses designing

• Sampling considerations

• Primary base

• Validation and authentication

Some secondary data sources:
Secondary Data Sources
Census data (conducted every ten years Registrar General of India
throughout the country) http://censusindia.gov.in
Statistical Abstract India (Annually) CSO(Central Statistical Organization)
http://www.mospi.gov.in/cso_test1.htm
White paper on national Income CSO
Annual Survey of Industries CSO
Foreign Trade of India (Monthly Statistics) Director General Of Commercial Intelligence and Statistics
http://www.dgciskol.gov.in/
Economic Survey (annual Publication) Dept. of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance
http://finmin.nic.in/the_ministry/dept_eco_affairs/
National Sample Survey(NSS) Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation
http://www.mospi.nic.in/NSSOa
Indian Brand equity foundation(IBEF) http://www.ibef.org

Etc.
 Qualitative method of data collection
Qualitative
research Procedure

Direct Indirect

Focus Depth Content Projective

Observation Sociometry
Group Interviews Analysis Technique

Association Completion Construction Expressive Choice/

Techniques Techniques Techniques Techniques Ordering
 Difference between Qualitative and quantitative Data Methods
Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
Research To explore ,describe or understand To quantify, explain or predict
Objective the reasons for a certain the occurrence of certain
phenomenon phenomenon
Research Design • Exploratory or descriptive Structured
• loosely structured
Sampling Plan Only small sample Small or large sample
Data collection • In-depth data, • Data is formatted and
• collected through a more structured
interactive and unstructured • Collected through stimulus
approach response
• Include both verbal and non • Include verbal and well-
verbal response articulated response
Data Analysis Textual and usually non statistical Statistical testing
 Observation Method
This direct method of data collection is one of the most appropriate
methods to use in case of descriptive research. In might be carried out in
a naturalistic environment where there is no control elements or it might
be carried out in a simulated environment under certain controlled
condition. the method of observation involve viewing and recording
individuals, groups, organizations or events in a scientific manner in
order to collect valuable data related to the topic under study.
The disadvantage of this method is that observation are always
behaviorally driven and cannot be used to investigate the reasons or
causes of the observed phenomena.
 Classification of observation method

Observation
Method

Format Consciousness Environment

Structured Unstructured Disguised Undisguised

Observation Observation Observation Natural Artificial/simulated
Observation
In a structured format the nature of content In an unstructured observation, there is a
to be recorded and the format and broad lack of clearly defined objectives and the
areas of recording are predetermined. In this chances of an observer’s biases remain high.
observer’s biases remain low. This method is This method is more useful is exploratory
more useful in descriptive cross-sectional research design.
design.
In a disguised observation the respondent In an undisguised observation the
has no knowledge regarding him/her being knowledge that the person is under
under observation or study. observation is conveyed to the respondent.
Natural observation is carried out in real In artificial or simulated environment the
time location. respondent is observation. this is actively
Example: how the employee interact during done in the armed forces stress test.
the break
 Content Analysis
This technique involves studying a previously recorded or reported communication and
systematically and objectively breaking it up into more manageable unit that are related to the
topic under study.it is original ,first hand and specific to the problem so it is categorized as
primary data method. For content analysis one can use letters, diaries, minutes of meeting,
articles, blogs, tweets, online post etc. It is structured and systematic method.
First step is to define universe which can be divide into five different format (Berelson, 1954)
• Word
• Theme
• Character
• Space measure and Time measure
• Item
Software used for content analysis
TEXTPACK,Verbstat,Statpac,
• 
Percentage of agreement
In content analysis we can report the universe in terms of item which refers to categorizing the whole
communication. This categorization is complex as the observer’s bias is likely to be high. Thus to
insure the reliability one may ask the another coder to evaluate the same data. Cohen(1960) says that
the measuring of the percentage of agreement between the two analyses by the following formula

K=Kappa

Pr(a)= relative observed agreement between the two rater

Pr(e)= Probability that agreement is due to chance

If no agreement Kappa is 0,Kappa is 0.21 to 0.40 is fair,0.41 to 0.80 is good,0.81 to 1 excellent.

Q. The following hypothetical data comes from a medical test where two
radiographer rated 50 images for needing further study. The researchers(A and B)
either said yes or no for further study needed.

A\B Yes No
Yes 20 5
No 10 15
• 

Kappa is 0.4 which represent fair agreement

 Focus Group Method
This method is developed in 1940s in Columbia University by sociologist Robert
Merton and his colleagues. This method is uniquely adapted and modified in different
branches of social sciences. It is a method which is more cost effective and less time
consuming and could generate a large amount of information in a short time span.

A focus group is a highly versatile and dynamic method of collecting information

from a representative group of respondents. The process generally involves a
moderator who maneuvers the discussion on the topic under study. There are a group
of carefully selected respondent who are specifically invited and gathered at a neutral
setting.
 Key element of a focus Group
• Size: it should not be too large or too small ideal size for the group discussion is 8 to 12 member.

• Nature: Individuals who are from a similar background/subject/policy/product knowledge must be

included, otherwise the disagreement might emerge as a result of other factors rather than the one under
study.

• Acquaintance: group should consist stranger rather than who know each other.

• Setting: space or setting should be as neutral, informal and comfortable as possible.one-way mirrors or
cameras installed need to ensure that these gadgets are as unobtrusively placed as possible.

• Time period: it should be held in single setting not more than one and a half hour.

• The recording: earlier it was human recorder behind one-way mirror now these are replaced by video
recorder.

• The moderator: moderator is the key conductor of the whole session. He/she may be a participant or non-
participant
Stages in a focus group discussion
Stage Affective reactions Behavior patterns Moderator's role
Formatting The group members are • Silence or general talk Tries to bring clarity by explaining the
• Uncomfortable, • Greeting and introduction purpose of gathering together, and the
• Insecure • Mundane activity expected behavior during the discussion.
• Apprehensive

Storming • Chaos • Argument directed at • Does not take side.

• Emotions start flying each other • Play poker face
• Member voicing their own • Leader and the follower • Steers the direction to the topic
opinion emerge • Draw out the passive participants

Norming • Sides starts forming Subject do not need any Bother about sequencing of information
• Non verbal signal steering by the moderator and managing time at this junction
Performing Individuals are subservient to • High energy • Introduce difficult issues
the group, roles are flexible and • Group works without • Stimulus material
task oriented. being asked • Projective techniques

Mourning • Group task nearing If member do not feel that • Single conclusion
completion any clear stand is emerging, • Ask if anyone has something to add
• Energy generated with the they might want to continue • Thank everyone and disperse for
discussion might be sapped and not disband the group closure.
 Personal interview method
A one to one interaction between the investigator/interviewer and the
interviewee. The dialogue either can be both unstructured and structure. The
quality of the output and the depth of information collected depends upon the
probing and listening skills of the interviewer. Investigator can use structure
interview, unstructured interview or semi structured interview.
 Projective technique
The projective techniques uncover the different levels of consciousness of an
individuals mind and reveal that data which is inhibited by socially-desirable and
correct responses.

These methods involve indirect questioning. Instead of asking direct question the
method involve ambiguous stimuli and indirect questions related to imaginary
situations or people. The purpose of the research is to present a situation to the
respondents to project their underlying needs, emotions, beliefs and attitudes on to
this.
 Types of projective techniques
• Association techniques: This method involve presenting a stimulus to the
respondent and he need to respond with the first thing that come to his mind. The
person’s exact response is either noted or recorded, it is critical to note the
reaction time of the person.
• Completion techniques: this techniques involve presenting an incomplete
object to the respondent, which can be completed by the respondent in any wat
that he/she seems appropriate. Object can be a sentence or story .
Example: Old age is …………
• Construction techniques: these techniques might appear similar to completion
technique however here, the focus is on the completed object, which could be a
story, a picture, a dialogue or a description.
Example: Story construction tests, Cartoon test.
• Expressive techniques: in this method the subject needs to express not
his/her own feeling and opinion but those of the protagonist(s) in a given
verbal or visual situation. this method reduce the social pressure about a
sensitive issue.
• Choice or ordering techniques: These techniques involve presenting the
respondents with an assortment of stimuli-in the form of pictures or statements
related to study topic. The subject is supposed to sort them into categories
based on the study.
 Sociometric Analysis
This is the technique that has the group rather the individual as its unit of analysis. It
involve measuring the choice, communication and interpersonal relations of people
in different groups.
•  Sociometric matrices
The matrix in this case is an matrix, where n is the number of people in the group. The
choice matrix is based upon the answers given by the subjects to the sociometric question.
For example, to a Six member group, we ask a sociometric question, ‘From the group
indicate two people you would like to take in your team’. A selection is marked as 1,
otherwise the person gets a score of 0.

A B C D E F
A 0 1 1 0 0 0
B 1 0 0 0 1 0
C 1 1 0 0 0 0
D 0 1 0 0 1 0
E 0 1 0 0 0 1
F 0 1 0 0 1 0
 Choice status

Formula for measuring the popularity or choice status of a person.

=•  

  Thechoice status of people j

the sum of choices in column j
n= number of people in the group who were asked the sociometric question.