UNIT II.

THE EVOLUTION OF TEACHING APPROACHES AND METHODS

2.1 Introduction
Teaching involves:
• a continuous analysis of one’s own work,
• the experiences of other teachers and
• the search for new means to improve teaching.
That means that the methodology of teaching English has to take into account
the problems posed by the English language for the students who will learn it.
Teaching English stands in relation with several challenges or problems:
1.What to teach? That means the amount of knowledge, skills and habits that
students have to obtain within the process of learning the language.
2.What are the aims of teaching? When a teacher is sure of the aim of
teaching, s/he will have the easiness of reaching the intended goal.
3. How to teach? In this case one can call to mind the principles upon which
teaching of English is based, the means, methods and tactics used in teaching in
order to achieve the required final completion.
The answers to these questions define the echelon of didactics as a science.
As a consequence it determines the nature of the problems to be dealt with.
 UNIT II. THE EVOLUTION OF TEACHING APPROACHES AND METHODS

2.2 Concepts of approach, method, procedure and technique

An approach (paradigm) refers to theories about the nature of
language and language learning that serves as the source of
practices and principles in language teaching. These theories are
derived from the areas of linguistics, sociolinguistics,
psycholinguistics and are the source of principles and practices of
language teaching. Despite the fact there are so many educational
theorists, there are three generally accepted labels that they all fall
under -  Behaviourism,  Cognitivism  and  Constructivism.
In other words, an approach to language teaching describes:
• the nature of language;
• how knowledge of a language is acquired;
• the conditions that promote language acquisition.
 UNIT II. THE EVOLUTION OF TEACHING APPROACHES AND METHODS

A method is a practical implementation of an approach. A theory is

put into practice at the level a method. It includes decisions about:
• particular skills to be taught;
• roles of the teacher and the learner in language teaching and
learning;
• appropriate procedures and techniques;
• content to be taught;
• the order in which the content will be presented.
It also involves a specific syllabus organization, choices of the
materials that will boost learning, and the means to assess
learners and evaluate teaching and learning. It is a sort of an
organizing plan that relies on the philosophical premises of an
approach.
 UNIT II. THE EVOLUTION OF TEACHING APPROACHES AND METHODS

A procedure is an ordered set of techniques. They are the step-by-step

measures to execute a method. A common procedure in the grammar-
translation method, for example, is to start by explaining the grammar rules
and exemplifying these rules through sentences that the students then had
to translate into their mother tongue. According to J. Harmer (2001), a
procedure is “smaller than a method and larger than a technique.”
A technique refers to the actual moment-to-moment classroom steps that
lead to a specified outcome. It is the actual implementation of a method in
the classroom; it is a particular way of doing things to accomplish an
immediate objective. Techniques must be consistent with a method which in
turn must be in harmony with an approach. They are the actual moment-to-
moment classroom steps that lead to a specified outcome. Every procedure
is realized through a series of techniques. They could take the form of an
exercise or just any activity that you have to do to complete a task.
  For instance, when using videos, teachers often use a technique called
silent viewing which consists of playing the video without sound and asking
students to figure out what the characters were saying.
 UNIT II. THE EVOLUTION OF TEACHING APPROACHES AND METHODS

Direct Method (Charles Berlitz, early 1900's) - is linked with the

introduction of phonetics and the interest in the spoken language.
• No use of mother tongue, the instruction is exclusively in the target
language, translation is not encouraged;
• The meaning of words is explained through direct presentation,
demonstration of pictures, intuition, visual aids;
• Abstract notions are explained through free associations,
paraphrase, guessing from the context, the use of
synonyms/antonyms;
• Pronunciation is considered an important component of language
learning;
• Attention is given to speaking and to written language;
• Grammar is learnt through much practice, only in the TL;
• Teacher and student are partners in the teaching-learning process;
• Accuracy is important in both vocabulary and grammar.
 UNIT II. THE EVOLUTION OF TEACHING APPROACHES AND METHODS

Audio-Lingual Method (1950's) - based on conditioning and on behaviorism.

• Focus on listening and speaking that precede reading and writing;
• A speech-based instruction, aiming at oral proficiency;
• Use of vocabulary that belongs to everyday life activities that is taught through
demonstrations or the use of objects;
• Abstract vocabulary is taught through association of ideas, accurate pronunciation and
grammar;
• Reading and writing should be developed in close relation with speaking, listening plays
an important place in language learning;
• Basic classroom activities are pattern practice and drills: repetition, replacement,
expansion, contraction, completion, they are practiced until response is authomatic;
• Dialogues are among favorite strategies, they are memorized and the role-played;
• Students play a reactive role, they respond to stimuli;
• The role of the teacher is very important, s/he models the TL, controls the direction and
pace of learning, monitors and corrects the performance;
• Activities are interesting and challenging, there is cooperation between teacher and
student;
• Tape recorders and audio-visual equipment have a central role.
 UNIT II. THE EVOLUTION OF TEACHING APPROACHES AND METHODS

The Audio Visual Method (E. Dale) - based on assumption that foreign language
is basically a mechanical process and it is more effective if spoken form
precedes written form.
• It is based on linguistics and psychology;
• It recognizes the importance of habit formation; achieved through exercises
based on repetition and memorization;
• Information is conveyed via auditory and visual stimuli: photos, cards,
posters, videos, DVDS etc.
• Emphasis is on speaking and listening as a means to communicate;
• This method is interested in how to use the language in order to
communicate, so both vocabulary and grammar are introduced in context;
• The main idea is that language should be learnt in its natural forms;
• The focus is not on vocabulary but on grammatical structures which are
acquired through drills and pattern practice;
• Students become familiar with everyday language while using it when talking
about general topics;
 3 ADVANCED METHODS OF TEACHING
ENGLISH
Gamification
Language learning games can offer a fun alternative
to the traditional teaching methods.They create a
dynamic learning experience, can be adapted to
the learner’s needs, and allow for longer-term
retention of the material since the student engages
with it in a deeper manner. There are numerous
games that can help learners get a grip on
vocabulary, grammar and syntax. For example:
Digital Dialects and Influent, Scrabble.
Conversation Exchange
Students learning English as a foreign language
can greatly benefit from engaging in
conversation with their peers who speak the
target language. There are various avenues that
can facilitate such an exchange online. For
instance, Bilingua connects language learners
online to help them learn from each other.
Invite Native Speakers to the Class
Speaking directly with a native speaker gives
students the opportunity to learn the correct
accent, improve comprehension and understand
the colloquial usage of the words. It brings a
different dimension to the student’s language
learning experience by helping them understand
the nuances that only a real, spontaneous
conversation can involve
 UNIT II. THE EVOLUTION OF TEACHING APPROACHES AND METHODS

Community Language Learning (Arthur Curran) - the classroom is the office in

which the counselor meets the client, the atmosphere is based on warmth, trust,
mutual understanding.
• Human learning is understood as having both cognitive and affective components;
• The interaction is the goal of language learning, the students can decide what is
to be learned, so the teacher is a supporter;
Suggestopedia (Georgi Lozanov, 1970’s). Lozanov suggests that the human brain
could process great quantities of material if simply given the right conditions for
learning, among which are a state of relaxation and giving over the control of the
teacher. Music is central to this method. This method transcends the language
classroom and can be applied in other school subjects. He claims that about 200
to 240 new words may be introduced each lesson. The teachers' role is to create
situations and then to introduce the linguistic material.
• Learning is facilitated in an environment that is as comfortable as possible,
featuring soft cushioned seating and dim lighting;
• "Peripheral" learning is encouraged through the presence in the learning
environment of posters and decorations featuring the target language and various
grammatical information;
• The teacher assumes a role of complete authority and control in the classroom;
 UNIT II. THE EVOLUTION OF TEACHING APPROACHES AND METHODS

Cognitive Code Approach (J.B.Carrol) – the study of a foreign language is a complex

problem that involves not only behavior (habits), but mental processes (memory,
problem solving).
• Language is considered to be a coherent and meaningful system and students are
expected to understand it;
• It rejected the habit formation. There is language acquisition rather than habit
formation.
• Lessons are based on deductive processes;
• Conscious study of grammar rules is considered essential;
• Creativity is stimulated.
Functional approach - importance should be given to what people want to do with the
language (functions) or to what meanings people want to convey (notions).
• Communication is a meaningful behavior that manifests itself in a social and cultural
context;
• Language teaching is organized in terms of content: language functions (persuading,
agreeing, informing, arguing) and notions (such as time, quantity, location, motion);
• Students need to be encouraged to express their opinions, emotions, feelings freely,
using authentic language;
 UNIT II. THE EVOLUTION OF TEACHING APPROACHES AND METHODS

2.5 More recent methods to language teaching

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) (1980's) is an approach to language teaching that
gained traction in the 1980s. It developed mainly as a reaction to the limitations of
previous methods which put little emphasis on the ability to communicate or to interact.
It was also influenced by the communicative function of language, i.e. that we use
language to do things like suggest, invite, agree, request, criticize, predict, etc.
• emphasizes the importance of all four language skills and;
• aims to achieve communicative competence (rather than linguistic competence) through
considerable learner interaction and communication of "real" meaning;
• tends to promote fluency over accuracy, the functional over the structural and authentic
materials over fabricated material;
• is sometimes called the Communicative Approach (CA), and this may indeed be a better
term since it is more a philosophy than a specific method. But whether called CLT or CA,
the main idea is real, functional communication;
• understanding occurs through active student interaction in the foreign language;
• teaching occurs by using authentic English texts;
• students not only learn the second language but they also learn strategies for
understanding;
• importance is given to learners’ personal experiences and situations which are
considered as an invaluable contribution to the content of the lessons;
 UNIT II. THE EVOLUTION OF TEACHING APPROACHES AND METHODS

Typical features of a CLT lesson are:

• Use of target language/some mother tongue;
• Presentation by teacher of new functional language, vocabulary
or structure;
• Practice by learners moving from controlled to spontaneous;
• Real-life interactive activities including information gap, role-play,
worksheets and activity cards, games, use of authentic materials
and realia.
• Development of actual listening, speaking, reading and writing,
pair-work / group-work,
• Fluency is an important dimension of communication;
• Communication involves the integration of different language
skills;
• Learning is a process of creative construction and involves trial
and error.
 UNIT II. THE EVOLUTION OF TEACHING APPROACHES AND METHODS

Task-based language teaching (TBLT) also known as task-based instruction (TBI, N. Prabhu)

focuses on the use of authentic language and on asking students to do meaningful tasks
using the target language (visiting a doctor, conducting an interview, etc)
Assessment is primarily based on the completion of real-world tasks rather than on
accuracy of prescribed language forms.
This makes TBLT especially popular for developing target language fluency and student
confidence. As such, TBLT can be considered a branch of 
communicative language teaching (CLT).
Most recent trends in TBLT include:
• Teachers need to determine the area of interest and a task (similar to what people do in
everyday life), then they set the objectives for the lesson, check the thematic and the
linguistic content of the lesson, then assess it;
• The area of interest is similar to what people do in everyday life;
• Activities are characterized by variety and flexibility, the teacher encourages their work;
• Students learn through an inductive approach, are open to conversation by expressing
their thoughts and feelings openly;
• In TBLT the role of the teacher changes from that of an instructor and prosecutor of errors
to that of a supporter and inventor of tasks which her/his learners enjoy doing;
 UNIT II. THE EVOLUTION OF TEACHING APPROACHES AND METHODS

A task is the activity in which students work purposefully

towards an objective. A typical task sequence may include:
• Pre-task phase: these are activities which prepare learners to
complete a task, for example, by guiding learners through an
example of the task they will have to do. There can be a
number of pre-tasks in one lesson.
• Doing of the task: these form the main body of the lesson and
can involve a number of steps. For example, learners working in
pairs or groups may first complete the task, then prepare a
report on the task, and finally present the report to the class.
• Post-task phase: these move away from activities designed to
promote fluency to those designed to promote accuracy.
• Taken together they form a task cycle. The major role of the
teacher changes from phase to phase.
 UNIT II. THE EVOLUTION OF TEACHING APPROACHES AND METHODS

Structural Approach (SA) stresses the importance of structures which are carefully
selected and graded. Structural grading consists of arranging the structural items or
patterns into a suitable order. In this approach the basis of teaching is structures
and patterns of English. The selected and graded structures are presented in a text
book and taught through classroom situations, actions, gestures, pictures,
blackboard drawings, etc. The teacher is expected to give choral, group and
individual oral drills based on certain structural patterns in order to reinforce and
consolidate the language items taught. The principles underlying the structural
approach are as following:
• Language is primarily speech;
• Learning a language is learning a set of habits;
• Structural approach can be easily adopted at all stages;
• Structural approach rightly assigns primacy to speech and also called aural-oral
approach;
• It is based on the principle of simple to complex;
• This approach junctions by developing learning situations for pushing desired
structure.
The structural approach is usually connected with the oral approach. The best way
to learn a language, even if the main aims are the skills of reading and writing, is
through the oral presentation of the new material by the teacher.
 UNIT II. THE EVOLUTION OF TEACHING APPROACHES AND METHODS

2.6 Eclectic theory of language

combines various approaches and methods to teach language depending
on the objectives of the course and the abilities of the learners. This
method was first used in 1920s-1930s by English linguists, Henry
Sweet and Harold Palmer. Then, Larsen-Freeman (2000) and Mellow
(2000) began to use the term “principle declecticism”.
The eclectic method is a combination of different teaching and
learning methods and approaches. This method is an effective
method for students at all ages and levels. Learning is fun and
innovative because of the unique structure of the process.
This method is quite democratic, because it gives a chance to the
teacher for selection. It provides teachers with a third option,
because it combines the elements of traditional and cognitive
methods to make them both strong.
 UNIT II. THE EVOLUTION OF TEACHING APPROACHES AND METHODS

• It includes the integration of content, structuring of information,

reduction of prejudice, pedagogy of equality and strengthening of
competitiveness.
• Teachers should help children learn to control their own mental
processes and to use them effectively.
• Teaching a foreign language should be simple for both teachers
and learners and should be within the abilities of all teachers.
• Language teaching should be appropriate to the scientific field of
the student.
• Four language skills should be included together.
• Teaching should be from easy to hard and from concrete to
abstract.
• Individual differences among the students should be taken into
consideration.
 UNIT II. THE EVOLUTION OF TEACHING APPROACHES AND METHODS

2.7 Traditional versus modern approaches

A teacher has many options when choosing a style by
which to teach. When deciding what teaching method to
use, a teacher needs to consider students’ background,
knowledge, environment, and learning goals.
Teachers are aware that students learn in different ways,
but almost all children will respond well to praise.
Teachers often use techniques which cater to multiple
learning styles to help students retain information and
strengthen understanding.
A variety of strategies and methods are used to ensure
that all students have equal opportunities to learn. 
 UNIT II. THE EVOLUTION OF TEACHING APPROACHES AND METHODS

Traditional approaches /methods versus modern approaches /methods

CHARACTERISTICS OF TRADITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN APPROACHES /
APPROACHES / METHODS METHODS
Language is understood as a system of forms Language is seen as a means of expressing
and structures that need to be learnt. meaning through form.
The goal of foreign language teaching is
communicative ability
The student has mostly a passive form, The student has an active role, taking part in
receiving the input. his/her development as a language learner.
Emphasis is on the cognitive domain. Emphasis is both on cognitive and affective
domains, students do not only learn things, they
are also encouraged to express feelings and
attitudes.
Students' learning is supported by extrinsic Teachers develop intrinsic motivation in
motivation. students.
Classes are mainly based on competition. Students work in pairs or groups through
cooperative activities and mutual support.
Teaching is followed by regular testing from the The teacher resorts to little testing.
part of the teacher.
 UNIT II. THE EVOLUTION OF TEACHING APPROACHES AND METHODS

The role of the teachers is that of the instructor, The teacher is a facilitator, monitor, guide, co-
knowledge provider and class controller. participant and learner.
Learning is based on memory practice. Learning acquires a new dimension; it is made
through discovery.
Creative expression and spontaneity are not Accent is on students' creativity, imagination
encouraged. and critical thinking.
Errors in language use are corrected by the Learning is understood as a dynamic process
teacher the moment they are produced, as and errors are seen as natural steps in acquiring
accuracy is important in language learning. the language.
The basic model of teaching is PPP - The basic model of teaching is Task-based
presentation, practice, production. Learning (TBL).
Basic teaching techniques are presentation, New techniques are used: brainstorming, role-
explanation, demonstration. play, simulation, information transfer, problem-
solving.
Inductive learning is stimulated. It includes
inquiry-based learning, problem-based
learning, project - based learning.
 UNIT II. THE EVOLUTION OF TEACHING APPROACHES AND METHODS

Humanistic approaches. This term is used for methods in which the following
principles are considered important:
• development of human values;
• growth in self-awareness and in the understanding of others;
• sensitivity to human feelings and emotions;
• active student involvement in learning and in the way learning takes place.
The humanistic teacher should have some objectives to follow: to be honest,
to show understanding to the students and their needs, to encourage
students, to be patient and to encourage cooperation in the class, to create
a relaxed atmosphere. The suggested are:
• to lower students inhibition through: guessing games, role play, songs, group
work, story-telling, brainstorming, debates;
• to encourage risk taking ( teachers need to praise the students efforts, to use
fluency exercises where errors are not corrected on the spot, not to
interrupt students flow of thought; to give out-of-class assignments.
• to build students self-confidence and to believe in their abilities;
• to help develop the intrinsic motivation of the students.