Electromagnetic Fields and Waves

Lecture 8 - 10

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec 8_9_10 /1

 Engineering Electromagnetics

Chapter 4
Energy and Potential

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec 8_9_10 /2

 Chapter 4 Energy and
Potential
Energy Expended in Moving a Point Charge in an Electric Field
◼ The electric field intensity was defined as the force on a unit
test charge at that point where we wish to find the value of the
electric field intensity.
◼ To move the test charge against the electric field, we have
o
t exert a force equal and opposite in magnitude to that
exerted by the field. ► We must expend energy or do work.
◼ To move the charge in the direction of the electric field, our
energy expenditure turns out to be negative. ► We do not do
the work, the field does.

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec 8_9_10 /3

 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Energy Expended in Moving a Point Charge in an Electric Field

◼ Suppose we wish to move a charge Q a distance dL in an
electric field E, the force on Q arising from the electric field is:
FE  QE

◼ The component of this force in the direction dL which we

must overcome is:
FEL  FE  a L  QE  a L
◼ The force that we apply must be equal and opposite to the
force exerted by the field:
Fappl  QE  a L
◼ Differential work done by external source to Q is equal to:
dW  QE  aL dL  QE 
dL • If E and L are perpendicular, the
differential work will be zero
AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec 8_9_10 /4
 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Energy Expended in Moving a Point Charge in an Electric Field

◼ The work required to move the charge a finite distance
is determined by integration:
final
W  dW
init

final
W  Q  E
init
dL
• The path must be specified beforehand
• The charge is assumed to be at rest at both initial
and final positions

• W > 0 means we expend energy or do work

• W < 0 means the field expends energy or do work

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec 8_9_10 /5

 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

The Line Integral

◼ The integral expression of previous equation is as
example of a line integral, taking the form of integral
along a prescribed path.
◼ Without using vector notation
we should have to write:
final
W  Q  ELdL
init

• EL: component of E along dL

◼ The work involved in moving a charge Q from B to A

is approximately:
W  Q(EL1L1  EL 2L2   EL6L6 )
W  Q(E1 L 1  E2 L 2   E6 L 6 )
AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec 8_9_10 /6
 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

The Line Integral

◼ If we assume that the electric field is uniform,
E1  E 2   E6
W  QE  (L1  L2   L6 )

◼ Therefore, L BA
W  QE 
(uniform E)
◼ LSince
BA the summation can be interpreted as a line integral,
the exact result for the uniform field can be obtained as:
A
W  Q  E 
B
dL
W  QE  A dL (uniform E)
B

W  QE  (uniform E) • For the case of uniform E, W
does not depend on the particular
LBA path selected along which
the charge is carried
AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec 8_9_10 /7
 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

The Line Integral

◼ Example
Given the nonuniform field E = yax + xay +2az, determine the
work expended in carrying 2 C from B(1,0,1) to A(0.8,0.6,1)
along the shorter arc of the circle x2 + y2 = 1, z = 1.

dL  dxax  dya y  dzaz • Differential path, rectangular

A coordinate
W  Q E
B
dL A
 Q  ( yax  xa y  2az )  (dxax   dzaz )
B
dya y 0.8 0.6 1
 2 ydx   xdy  2 2dz
1 0 1
2

• Circle equation: x 2  y 2  1
x  1 y 2
y 1 x2

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec 8_9_10 /8

 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

The Line Integral

0.8 0.6 1
W  2  1  x dx  
2
1  y dy 2  2dz
2
1 0 1
2 
1 
0.8 1 
0.6
x  y 1  y2
 2  1  x2  2 sin1 x1  2   2 sin1 y 
2 2 0

 0.962 J u a2  u2  a 2
 a  u du  2
2 2
1 u

◼ Example sin a
Redo the example, but use the straight-line path from B to 2 A.
• Line equation: y  y B  yA  y (x  x )  y  3x  3
B

x A  xB B

0.8 0.6 1
W  2  ydx   xdy  2 2dz
1 0 1
2
0.8 0.6
 2  (3x  3)dx   (1  )dy 
y
0 3
1 0
2
 0.962 J

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec 8_9_10 /9

 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Differential Length
dL  dxax  dyay  dzaz Rectangular
dL  d a   ddza
 z a Cylindrical
dL  dr ar  r d a  r sin d Spherical
a

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec 8_9_10 /10

 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Work and Path Near an Infinite Line Charge


E  E a  L

20
a
dL  d a  da 
dzaz
L
final
Case
W 1 Q init 2 1 a  1d a
final 
 Q  L
d a 
init 2
0 
0 a
Case 2
final L
W  Q  a   d 
init 2 0 a
b
 Q L d
20 
a

b
Q L ln
  2 a
0

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec 8_9_10 /11

 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Definition of Potential Difference and Potential

◼ W e already find the expression for the work W done by an
external source in moving a charge Q from one point to another
in an electric field E:
final
W  Q  E
init
dL
◼ Potential difference V is defined as the work done by an
external source in moving a unit positive charge from one point
to another in an electric field:
final
Potential difference  V   E
init
dL
◼ W e shall now set an agreement on the direction of movement.
VAB signifies the potential difference between points A and B
and is the work done in moving the unit charge from B (last
named) to A (first named).

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec 8_9_10 /12

 Chapter 4 Energy and
Potential
Definition of Potential Difference and Potential
◼ Potential difference is measured in joules per coulomb (J/C).
However, volt (V) is defined as a more common unit.
◼ The potential difference between points A and B is:
A
VAB   E  dL • V is positive if work is done in carrying
AB
B unit positive charge from B to A
V
◼ From the line-charge example, we found that the work done
in taking a charge Q from ρ = a to ρ = b was:
Q b
W   2ln
0
L

a ρ = b to ρ = a,
◼ Or, from
Q a Q b
W   2ln
L
0 b  ln
2 
L
0

◼ Thus,a the potential difference between points at ρ = a to

ρ = b is:
W L b
Vab  Q  2 ln a
0
AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec4 /13
 Chapter 4 Energy and
Potential
Definition of Potential Difference and Potential
◼ It is often convenient to speak of potential, or absolute
potential, of a point rather than the potential difference
between two points.
◼ For this purpose, we must first specify the reference point that
we consider to have zero potential.
◼ T h e most universal zero reference point is “ground”, which
means the potential of the surface region of the earth.
◼ A n o t h e r widely used reference point is “infinity.”
◼ For cylindrical coordinate, in discussing a coaxial cable, the
outer conductor is selected as the zero reference for potential.

◼ If the potential at point A is VA and that at B is VB, then:

VAB  VA VB

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec4 /14

 Chapter 4 Energy and
Potential
The Potential Field of a Point Charge
◼ In previous section we found an expression for the potential
difference between two points located at r = rA and r = rB in
the field of a point charge Q placed at the origin:
Q
VAB  1 1
  V A VB
4 0r A rB 
rA
V AB  r E 
B
dL
r
VAB   E r dr
A

rB

◼ Any initial and final values of θ or Φ will not affect the answe
r
As long as the radial distance between rA and rB is constant,
any complicated path between two points will not change the
results.
◼ This is because although dL has r, θ, and Φ components,
the field E only has the radial r component.
Dr. M. Tanseer
AIUB EMWF Lec4 /15
 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Definition of Potential Difference and Potential

◼ For a point charge, we can find the potential difference
between points A and B at radial distance rA and rB, choosing
an origin at Q:
Q
E  Er a r  ar
4o r 2

dL  dra r
A
  E 
VAB B
dL r Q
 
A
dr
rB 4 2
0

Q r 1 1 
  • rB > r A V
AB > 0, AB
W >

4 0 r rA 0, Work expended by the
B
external source (us)
• rB < rA VAB < 0, WAB < 0,
Work done by the electric
field

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec4 /16

 Chapter 4 Energy and
Potential
The Potential Field of a Point Charge
The potential difference between two points in the field of a
point charge depends only on the distance of each point from
the charge.
Thus, the simplest way to define a zero reference for potent ial
in this case is to let V = 0 at infinity.
As the point r = rB recedes to infinity, the potential at rA
becomes:
 VA 
VAB
VB
VAB  Q 1

Q
4 0 Ar 4 0 B
r1
VAB  Q 1 Q
 4
4 0 A 0
1
rQ
VAB  1 A
4 0 rA 
V

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec4 /17

 Chapter 4 Energy and
Potential
The Potential Field of a Point Charge
◼ Generally,
Q
V
40r

◼ Physically, Q/4πε0r joules of work must be done in

carrying 1 coulomb charge from infinity to any point in a
distance of r meters from the charge Q.

◼ W e can also choose any point as a zero reference:

Q
V 
C 40r
1

with C1 may be selected so that V = 0 at any desired value of r.

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec4 /18

 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Equipotential Surface
◼ Equipotential surface is a surface composed of all those
points having the same value of potential.

◼ No work is involved in moving a charge around on

an equipotential surface.

◼ The equipotential surfaces in the potential field of a

point charge are spheres centered at the point charge.

◼ The equipotential surfaces in the potential field of a line

charge are cylindrical surfaces axed at the line charge.

◼ The equipotential surfaces in the potential field of a sheet

of charge are surfaces parallel with the sheet of charge.

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec4 /19

 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Potential Gradient
◼ W e have discussed two methods of determining potential:
directly from the electric field intensity by means of a line
integral, or from the basic charge distribution itself by a volume
integral.

◼ In practical problems, however, we rarely know E or ρv.

◼ Preliminary information is much more likely to consist a

description of two equipotential surface, and the goal is to find
the electric field intensity.

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec4 /20

 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Potential Gradient
◼ The general line-integral
relationship between V and E is:
V   E  dL
dV  E  dL
◼ For a very short element of
length ΔL, E is essentially
constant:
V  E L
V  EL cos

◼ Assuming a conservative field, for a given reference and starting

point, the result of the integration is a function of the end point (x,y,z). We
may pass to the limit and obtain:
dV
dL E cos
AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec4 /21
 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Potential Gradient
◼ From the last equation, the maximum positive increment of
potential, Δvmax, will occur when cosθ = –1, or ΔL points in
the direction opposite to E.
dV
E
dL max

◼ W e can now conclude two characteristics of the relationship

between E and V at any point:
1. The magnitude of E is given by the maximum value of the
rate of change of V with distance L.

2. This maximum value of V is obtained when the direction of

the distance increment is opposite to E.

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec4 /22

 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Potential Gradient
◼ For the equipotential surfaces
below find the direction of E at P.

E
dV
,
dL max

 180

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec4 /23

 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Potential Gradient
◼ Since the potential field information is more likely to be
determined first, let us describe the direction of ΔL (which leads
to a maximum increase in potential) in term of potential field.
◼ Let aN be a unit vector normal to the equipotential surface
and directed toward the higher potential.
◼ The electric field intensity is then expressed in terms of
the potential as:
E  E N E =  dL
dV N

a a
max

◼ The maximum magnitude occurs when ΔL is in the aN d irection.

Thus we define dN as incremental length in aN direction,
dV dV
dL max dN 

dV
E =  dN a N
AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec4 /24
 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Potential Gradient
◼ W e know that the mathematical operation to find the rate
of change in a certain direction is called gradient.
◼ Now, the gradient of a scalar field T is defined as:
dT
Gradient of T  grad T  dN a N

◼ Using the new term

dV
E =  dN a N = grad V

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec4 /25

 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Potential Gradient
◼ Since V is a function of x, y, and z, the total differential is
V V V
dV  dx  dy  dz
x y z
◼ But also,

dV  E  dL  E x dx  E y dy  Ez dz

◼ Both V
expression are true for any dx, dy, and dz. Thus:
Ex  
x  V x V y V z 
V E   a  y a  z a
Ey    x 
y
V V V
grad V  x a x  y a y  z a z
V
Ez  
z

◼ Note: Gradient of a scalar is a vect

or. AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec4 /26
 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Potential Gradient
◼ Introducing the vector operator for gradien
t:   
  x ax  y ay  za z

We now can relate E and V as:

E  V

V V V Rectangular
V  x a x  y a y  z a z

V  1 V  Vz Cylindrical
V  a 
  a 
z
a
V 1 V 1 V  Spherical
V  r a  r 
r a  r sin  a

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec4 /27

 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Potential Gradient
◼ Example
Given the potential field, V = 2x2y–5z, and a point P(–4,3,6),
find V, E, direction of E, D, and ρv.
V  2(4)2 (3)  5(6)  66 V
P

 V  V 
E  V    a x a y  V a z   4xya x  2x 2 a y  5az
 x y z 
E P  4(4) x  2(4) 2 ay  5az  48a x
 y  5a z V
(3)a 32a m
a E ,  EP
P EP
DP  0EP  425ax  283.3ay  44.27az pC m3

  div D  div  E  (8.8541012 )(4 y)  35.42 y pC m3

v 0

At P,  v 35.42(3) pC m3  106.26 pC m3
AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec4 /28
 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

The Dipole
◼ The dipole fields form the basis for the behavior of
dielectric materials in electric field.
◼ The dipole will be discussed now and will serve as an
illustration about the importance of the potential concept
presented previously.

◼ An electric dipole, or simply a dipole, is the name given to

two point charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign,
separated by a distance which is small compared to the
distance to the point P at which we want to know the electric
and potential fields.

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec4 /29

 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

The Dipole
◼ The distant point P is described by the spherical coordinates
r, θ and Φ = 90°.
◼ The positive and negative point charges have separation d
and described in rectangular coordinates (0,0, 0.5d) and (0,0,–
0.5d).

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec4 /30

 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

The Dipole
◼ The total potential at P can be written as
Q  1 1 Q R2  R1
V   4 R R
 
4 0  R R1 0 1 2

◼ The plane2 z = 0 is the locus of points for which R1 = R2

► The potential there is zero (as also all points at ∞).

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec4 /31

 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

The Dipole
◼ For a distant point, R1 ≈ R2 ≈ r, R2–R1 ≈ dcos 
Qd cos2
V 4r0

◼ Using the gradient in spherical c o o r d i n a t e

s,
E  V
 V r  1 V a   V  
   a r  r sin  a 
r 1
 Qd cos Qd sin 
E    ar 
 2r0 4r0 3 a 
3

Qd
E
40 r3 2 cos
a r  sin a θ

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec4 /32

 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

The Dipole
◼ To obtain a plot of the
potential field, we choose
Qd/(4πε0) = 1 and thus cosθ = r = 2.236
Vr2.
◼ The colored lines in the figure
below indicate equipotentials for
V = 0, +0.2, +0.4, +0.6, +0.8, r = 1.880
and +1.
Plane at
zero potential 45°

Qd cos
V
4r0 2
AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec4 /33
 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

The Dipole
◼ The potential field of the dipole may be simplified by
making use of the dipole moment.
◼ If the vector length directed from –Q to +Q is identified as
d, then the dipole moment is defined as Qd and is assigned
the symbol p.
p  Qd
◼ Since dar = d cosθ , we then have:
p
V
4ar
0
r 2
1 1
r  r • Dipole charges: 1  and E 
V
V p r r2
4r0  r2
r3
r • Point charge: 1 1
V  r and E  2
r

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec4 /34

 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Practice Problems

AIUB Dr. M. Tanseer EMWF Lec 8_9_10 /35