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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROICS

 Electronics derived from the word electron mechanics which

means the study of behaviour of an electron at different
conditions of applied electric field.
 The device which controls the flow of electron is called
electronic device.
 These devices are the main building blocks of circuits
 The motion of electrons through a conductor gives us electric
current.
 This electric current can be produced by batteries and
generators.

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Advantages

 Electronic devices are playing a major role in our daily life

 computers, mobile phones, ATMs, pen drive, TV, digital
camera etc.

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INTRODUCTION TO SEMI CONDUCTORS

All the materials are classified under 3 categories. They are

• Conductors: These materials have highest conductivity.

Example :Copper, Aluminium, Iron etc.
• Insulators : These materials have lowest conductivity.
Example: Wood,Mica, Plastic etc.
• Semiconductors : These materials have conductivity lies in
between conductors and insulators.
Example: Germanium, Silicon etc.
 REVIEW OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE

 An atom consists of nucleus at

the centre with electrons
orbiting around the nucleus
 Electrons are negatively
charged particles
 Nucleus is a cluster of protons
and neutrons
 Protons are positively charged
particles and neutrons has no
charge at all
 Total electric charge of an
atom is zero
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 Each shell has a limit to accomodate the number of electrons

 maximum number of electrons in shell is given by 2n2
 the inner most shell is numbered as1, i.e., n=1 then maximum
number of electrons in shell 1 are 2.
 for second shell n=2, so maximum number of electrons it can
accomodate are 8 and so on.

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IONIZATION
• The amount of energy required to remove an electron from its
orbits is called ionization potential
• A neutral atom becomes an ion either by losing or gaining an
electron

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 Atomic Structure of Semiconductors

 silicon atomic structure

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 Germanium atomic structure

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 The graphical representation of energy levels in a solid is

called Energy Band Diagram

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Energy Band in Solid

The following are the important energy band in solids
 Valence band
 Conduction band
 Forbidden energy gap or Forbidden band

 Valence band:
The band of energy occupied by the valence electron is valence
band. The electrons in outermost orbit of an atom are known as
valence elecrons. This band may be completely or partial filled

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 Conduction Band
The band of energy occupied by the conduction electrons is
called conduction band. This is the uppermost band and all
electrons in the conduction band ae free electrons.
This band is empty for insulators and partially filled for
conductors
 Forbidden energy gap or Forbidden band
The gap between the valence band and conduction band on
energy level diagram known as forbidden energy gap or
forbidden band

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Intrinsic Semiconductors
 A semiconductor material which is available its purest form is
called as instinsic semiconductor
Electron - Hole Concept
Crystal structure at T=0 K

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Crystal Structure at T >0 k

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Extrinsic Semiconductors

 To acquire the sufficient electrical conductivity, some

impurities are added to intrinsic semiconductors.
 The process of adding impurities to a pure or instinsic
semiconductor material is called as doping and the
semiconductor materials thus obtained are called extrinsic
semiconductors (impure semiconductors)
 The impuroties added to the intrinsic semiconductors are
called Dopants.
 Two types of Dopants are geney used. They are Pentavalent
atoms and Trivalent atoms

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P type (Extrinsic) Semiconductors

 Trivalent Atoms: Atoms having three valence electrons in its

outer most shell are called as trivalent.
 When a trivalent impurity atom is added to a pure conductor
crystal, the resulting crystal is called a P type semiconductor

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Ntype Semiconductor
 Pentavalent Atoms: Atoms having five valence electrons in its
outer most shell are called as trivalent.
 When a pentavalent impurity atom is added to a pure
conductor crystal, the resulting crystal is called a N type
semiconductor

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Drift Velocity
 The average velocity with which the charge carriers drift in a
definite direction under the influence of an electricfield is
called Drift Velocity vd.
 vd depends on nature of charged particles and applied electric
field.
 Drifft velocity is proportional to the electric field and is given
by,
vd α E or vd =ᶙE -----(1)
 where ᶙ is proportionality constant called mobility
 the mobility of charge carriers can be defined as the drift
velocity per unit applied electric field (from eq (1))
ᶙ= vd/E (m2/v- sec)
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CONDUCTIVITY

let n be concentration of charge carriers, q be the charge on each electron. If v d

is the drift velocity acquied, then time taken by the charge carrier to cross the
length L of the conductor is
t=L/vd
total amount of charge in unit volume =nq
the total charge in the conductor, Q= nq x (volume)=nqAL
The electric current flowing through the conductor is
Q nqAL
I    qnA v d  qnAE
t L / vd

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The current density J

I
J  nq E
A
the quantity nqᶙ can be replaced by a constant 
  nq
This constant is called the conductivity of of the conductor.
Above equation can be written as  J  E
Thus the electrical conductivity is the current density per unit
electric field.i.e.,
J
 
E
the conductivity is the inverse of resistivity 

1
 


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Conductivity in semiconductor materials

we know that   nq 
the conductivity, n of the semiconductor due to electrons in conduction bad is
given by  n  nq  n
where n is the electron concentration
n is the electron mobility
similarly, the conductivity  p of the semiconductor due to holes in valence
band and is given by p  nqp
where p is hole concentration
 p is the hole mobility
the total conductivity  is given by,  n  p

   nq  n  nq  p  q [ n  n  n  p ]

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 In case of Intrinsic semiconductors:

n  p  n i wheren i represents the intrinsic concentration
of electrons or holes in the semiconductor
 i  q[ni  n  ni  p ] -------(1)
 In case of N type semiconductors:
n>>p
Let N D be the concentration of free electrons donated by donor impurities
since n>>p, eq(1) becomes   qN 
N D n

 In case of P type semiconductors:

p>>n
Let
N Abe the concentration of holes contributed by acceptor impurities
since p>>n, eq(1) becomes
 p  qNAp
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INTRINSIC CONCENTRATION

 In an intrinsic semiconductor, as the temperature increases more and more

number of covelent bonds are broken, which results in a large electron and
hole concentration.
 intrinsic concentration varies with temperature, T
 EG 0
n i
2
 A 0T 3
e kT

 where EG0 is the forbidden energy gap at 00K(eV)

k is Boltzmann constant (eV/0K)
A0 is constant which is independent of temperature
T is temperature (0K)

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