SENTENCE

ADVERBS
FOCUS
ADVERBS

 Sentence adverbs, also called viewpoint adverbs, modify entire sentences.

 Common sentence adverbs: absolutely, actually, basically, clearly, definitely,
essentially, fortunately, generally, hopefully, obviously, overall, perhaps,  Focus adverbs usually go before the word or phrase
possibly, surely. focused on.
 If the adverb comes first or last in a sentence, you should comma after the adverb.  Common focus adverbs: even, just, only, almost.
 If the adverb come elsewhere in the sentence, it comes after the verb be and before  Changing the position of a focus adverb often changes the
other verbs. meaning of the sentence.

ADVERB

N E G AT I V E OTHER
ADVERBS ADVERBS

 Common negative verbs: barely, hardly, in no way, little,  Here and there force inversion when they come at the beginning
neither, never, not only, only, rarely, seldom. of a sentence.
 These verbs at the beginning, force inversion of the subject and  So often force inversion of subject and verb or auxiliary when it
the verb or auxiliary. occurs at the beginning of a sentence.
 If the verb in the sentence is in simple present or simple past,  So used to connect two positive statements.
use do, does or did after an initial negative verb.  In a sentence beginning with here or there, invert the subject and
 If the verb is in the perfect form, place the auxiliary before the verb or auxiliary if thee subject is a noun
subject.
 ADVERB CLAUSES

 A clause is a group of words that contains at least one subject and a verb showing past,
present, or future time.
 Clauses can be independent or dependent.
 Adverb clauses sometimes occur inside independent clauses.
 In a complex sentence, if the dependent clause comes first, we place a comma after it.
 In complex sentences, do not use will or be going to in the dependent clause to show future
time.

TIME PLACE REASON CONDITION CONTRAST

 This type of adverb indicate when  This type of adverb indicate under  This make a contrast with the idea expressed in
 This type of adverb indicate where  This type of adverb indicate why
something happens. what conditions something happens. the independent clause.
something happens. something happens.
 We can use: after, as, as soon as,  We can use: even if, only if, in case,  We can use: although, even though, though,
 We can use: anywhere, everywhere,  We can use: since, as, because, now whereas, while, etc.
before, by the time, once, since, unless, etc.
where, wherever, etc. that (= because now), etc.  Place comma before/after a dependent clause.
until/till, when, whenever, while, etc.  Don’t confuse even if with even.
 DEFINITION OF ADVERB PHRASES
 An adverb phrase is a group of words that often modifies a main clause in a sentence.
 It commonly include: present and past participles.
 In negative, you use the words not or never before the participle.
TYPE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
 Omit the subject pronoun and the form of be.
 While they were building, they had problems with municipal permits. /
 If the original sentence has commas, keep them.
Reducing Adverb Clauses While building, they had problems with municipal permits.
 When the adverb phrase comes first, we usually place a comma after it.  Whereas she is singing, she cooks her dinner. / Whereas singing, she cooks
with Be
 You can reduce an adverb clause to an adverb phrase only if the subject in both clauses of the her dinner.
sentence refer to the same person or thing.

 Omit the subject pronoun and change the verb to its –ing form.  After they bought the tickets, they went to buy popcorn. / After buying the
Changing Adverb Clauses  Keep the subordinating conjunction and original punctuation. tickets, they went to buy popcorn.
of Time  You can change an adverb clause of time only if the subjects in the two clauses of the  Before I recorded my video for the class, I dressed formally. / Before
sentences refer to the same person or thing. recording my video for the class, I dressed formally.

 To change an adverb clause with a simple past or past perfect verb to an adverb phrase,
 As soon as they arrived, they went to visit their parents. / Having arrived,
change the verb to having + past participle.
Changing Adverb Clauses they went to visit their parents.
 Keep the original punctuation.
with Past-Time Verbs  Before I learned English, I wanted to study German. / Before learning
 You can also change the clause to a phrase by changing the verb to its –ing form and keeping
English, I wanted to study German.
the subordinating conjunction and the original punctuation.
 When my mom organized my birthday, she forgot to invite my grandparents.
Replacing When with On / Upon organizing my birthday, she forgot to invite my grandparents.
 Don’t use when in adverb phrases if the meaning is “at the time something occurred”.
or Upon in Adverb  When I saw the movie “A Nightmare on Elm Street”, I felt afraid the
 If when has this meaning in an adverb clause, replace it with on or upon + -ing.
Phrases principal character "Freddy Krueger". / On seeing the movie “A Nightmare
on Elm Street”, I felt afraid the principal character "Freddy Krueger".
DEFINITION OF ADVERBIAL PHRASES
 An adverb phrase without a subordinating conjunction is called an adverbial phrase.
TYPE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
 Omit the subordinating conjunctions because, since or as at the beginning of a clause. These
 Since they were tired from work, they traveled to the Caribbean. / Being
conjunctions must be omitted.
Changing Adverb Clauses tired from work, they traveled to the Caribbean.
 You can change because / since / as + a form of be to being.
of Reason  Because he had slept in all classes, he failed the final exam. / Having slept in
 You can change a present perfect or past perfect verb in an adverb clause to having + past
all classes, he failed the final exam.
participle in an adverbial phrase.
 If you can omit the subordinating conjunction in an adverbial phrase without changing the
 Since he was invited to the ceremony, he chose his best suit. / Invited to the
meaning of the sentence, delete the subject and any auxiliaries.
ceremony, he chose his best suit.
Changing Passive Clauses  Sometimes you can’t omit the subordinating conjunction without changing the meaning of
 After I was bought a new kitchen, I cooked delicious foods every day. / After
the sentence. To form an adverb phrase, delete the subject and change the form of be to
being bought a new kitchen, I cooked delicious foods every day.
being.
 CONNECTORS C O O R D I N AT I N G S U B O R D I N AT I N G
CONJUNCTIONS CONJUNCTIONS

 Connectors are words and phrases that connect ideas

both within sentences and between sentences and  This type of connector join two independent clauses.  Connect ideas within sentences.
larger blocks of text.  These connectors come between independent clauses.  They come at the beginning of subordinate clauses.
 There are 3 types of connectors: coordinating  It preceded by a comma.  If a subordinate comes first in a sentence, it’s
conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions and  The 7 coordinating conjunctions are: and, for, or, yet, followed by a comma.
transitions. but, nor, so.  If it comes second, it’s not normally preceded by a
 Nor is negative. Reverse the subject and verb after it. comma.

I would like to travel to France, but I don’t have She will buy a new car because she has a new job.
passport.
TRANSITIONS

 Transitions are single words or expressions that connect

ideas between sentences or larger sections of text. TRANSITIONS TO CONNECT
TRANSITIONS TO CONNECT
 At the beginning it’s preceded by a period or semicolon SENTENCES AND
BLOCK OF TEXT
INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
and followed by a comma.
 In the middle, it’s preceded and followed by a comma.
 At the end, it’s preceded by a comma.
 Addition: additionally, also, besides, furthermore, likewise, in addition, plus, in  They usually come at the beginning of a sentence and are
 Transitions are: besides, consequently, however, in
fact, indeed, moreover. commonly followed by a comma.
addition, meanwhile, nevertheless, otherwise, therefore.
 Contrast: however, in contrast, in spite of / despite that, instead, nevertheless,  Order of time or importance: finally, first (of all), next, most
 If a transition comes at the beginning of an independent
nonetheless, still, though. importantly, second, third, etc.
clause, it must be preceded by a period o semicolon.
 Effect / result: accordingly, as a result, because of that, consequently, on account  Give examples: for example, for instance, to name / mention a
of this, otherwise, therefore, thus. few.
 These transitions shown relationships of actions, events, and ideas in time: after  Summarize: all in all, in sum, in summary, to summarize, overall.
that, afterwards, in the meantime, meanwhile, next, then.  Add a conclusion: to conclude, in conclusion.
 Otherwise shows both condition and effect / result.
 Though is a contrast transition when it occurs at the end of an independent clause.
In summary, I think people should care more about the
In other positions, it’s a subordinating conjunction. planet.
 T H AT + N O U N T H E FA C T T H AT EMBEDDED
CLAUSES + NOUN CLAUSES QUESTIONS

 This word introduce certain noun clauses.  You can use this phrase in place of that in subject  A question that is changed to a noun is called an embedded
 When that begins a noun clause, it introduces the clause. clauses. question.
 You can omit that when it introduces an object noun clause or  You must use the fact that in place of that in noun  Use statement word order, not question word order.
a complement noun clause. clauses that are objects of prepositions.  An embedded question within a statement is followed by a
 Don’t omit that, when it introduces a subject noun clause. period.
 Don’t confuse that and what. The first, simply introduces  An embedded question within another question is followed
certain noun clauses. The second, refer to something definite. by a question mark.

NOUN CLAUSES

WH-QUESTION WORDS IF AND WHETHER (OR NOT) -EVER WORDS +

+ NOUN CLAUSES + NOUN CLAUSES NOUN CLAUSES

 The wh-questions words: what, who, when,  Use these words to introduce noun clauses that  Use these words: whatever, whoever,
where, which, why and how. are formed from yes / no questions. whomever, wherever, whenever, however,
 The subject of an embedded wh-questions takes a  Don’t use if to introduce a subject noun clause. whichever (one).
singular verb.  Don’t omit if or whether (or not) in embedded  These words introduce noun clauses.
 Don’t use do, does or did in embedded questions. yes / no questions.
 REPORTING REPORTING YES/NO REPORTING CHANGES IN
VERBS QUESTIONS WH- QUESTIONS VERBS

 We normally use ask in its simple past form.  If the reporting verb is in the simp
ting verbs: say, tell, ask, claim, reply, state  Use statement word order, not question word order. in the noun clause often changes:
onder.  Use if or whether (or not) to introduce an indirect yes/no  Use question words to introduce indirect wh- questions.  Imperative  infinitive
ally, tell must be followed by an object. questions and to emphasize alternatives or different  Use statement word order to report indirect questions  Simple present  simple pas
use tell when the listener is not mentioned. possibilities. about a predicate.  Present progressive  past p
use say immediately before an object. Use  Don’t use do, does, or did in an indirect question. Use the  We also use statement word order to report indirect  Simple past  past perfect
to + object. simple present, simple past, or past perfect. questions about the subject.  Present perfect  past perfec

DIRECT AND
INDIRECT SPEECH

V E R B S T H AT D O N ’ T REPORTING OTHER CHANGES IN

CHANGE MODALS INDIRECT SPEECH

 We sometimes do not change verbs in indirect speech if what  Certain modals change in indirect speech:  Other words change:
we are reporting happened a short time ago.  Can  could  Pronouns/possessive adjectives  other forms
 We often don’t change verbs to past forms if general truths  May  might  This  that and these  those
are reported.  Must  had to  Here  there
 The verb not change, when the reporting verb is in the  Shall  should  Now  then
simple present, present progressive, present perfect, or  Will  would  Ago  before/previously
future.  Could, had better, might, ought to, should and  Yesterday  the day before/ the previous day
would don’t change.  Today  that day
 Tomorrow  the next day/the following day