UNDERGROUND MINING

METHODS INTRODUCTION
ZHANG Jianhua
HUANG Gang

School of Resources and Environmental Engineering,

Wuhan University of Technology
2016.10
4 Underground Mining Methods
4.1 Classification of Underground Mining
Once an ore body has been probed and outlined and
sufficient information has been collected to warrant
further analysis, the important process of selecting
the most appropriate method or methods of mining
can begin.
At this stage, the selection is preliminary, serving
only as the basis for a project layout and feasibility
study.
Later it may be found necessary to revise details, but
the basic principles for ore extraction should remain a
part of the final layout.
Mineral exploitation in which all extraction is carried
out beneath the earth’s surface is termed underground
mining.

Underground mining method is the one of mining ore

within an ore block, which is a ordered combination of
development within an ore block, cutting and mining
operation in space time, or a general term for the
development, cutting and mining operation.
Once economic analysis points to underground
methods, the choice of a proper mining procedure
hinges mainly on:

(1)determining the appropriate form of ground

support, if necessary, or its absence:

(2)designing the openings and their sequence of

extraction to conform to the spatial characteristics of
the mineral deposit.
Choice of an underground mining method is often
closely related to the geology of the deposit and the
degree of ground support necessary to make the
methods productive and safe.
Generally, it is usually classified in three categories
of methods based on the extent of support utilized:
•Unsupported
•Supported
•caving
 Summarization
Class definition
Unsupported A mining method based on natural support seeks to
(Naturally Supported control the rock mass displacements through the zone
Methods) of influence of mining, while mining proceeds;
Typical Methods: This implies maintenance of the local stability of the
(1)Room-and-pillar mining rock around individual excavations and more general
(2)Stope-and-pillar mining
control of displacements in the near-field domain.
(3)Shrinkage stoping
(4)Sublevel stoping

Supported Two main ground control measures are used to

(Artificially Supported control local stope wall behaviour and mine near-
Excavations) field displacements;
Typical Methods: Support is provided through devices such as rock-
(1) Cut-and-fill stoping bolts, cable-bolts or grouted tendons;
(2) Stull stoping Support is provided through an artificial support
(3) Square-set stoping medium known as backfill.
Caving Longwall and caving mining methods are
Typical Methods:
distinguished from other mining methods by the fact
that near-field rock undergoes large displacements so
(1) Langwall mining
that mined voids become self filling. In caving
(2) Sublevel caving
methods the far-field rock may also undergo large
(3) Block caving displacements.
 Class Typical Methods Commodities
Room-and-pillar mining 房柱 Coal, nonmetal

Stope-and-pillar mining 房柱 Metal , nonmetal

Unsupported
Shrinkage stoping 留矿 Metal , nonmetal

Sublevel stoping 分段空场 Metal , nonmetal

Cut-and-fill stoping 分层充填 Metal

Supported Stull stoping 横撑支柱 Metal

Square-set stoping 方框支架 Metal

Langwall mining 长壁 Coal

Caving Sublevel caving 分段崩落 Metal

Block caving 矿块崩落 Metal

They are differentiated by the type of wall and roof

supports used, the configuration and size of
production openings, and the direction in which
mining operations progress.
4.2 Unsupported Mining Method
The unsupported class consists of the methods in
which the rock is essentially self-supporting and for
which no major artificial support is necessary to carry
the load of the overlying rock.

The weight of the overlying rock plus any tectonic （构造

的） forces is generally called the superincumbent （上面的，

自上而下的） load.

This load will be too high in many rock masses, but

for the unsupported methods, we assume that the
geologic materials can sustain the load.
The definition of unsupported methods does not
preclude （ 排 除 ， 妨 碍 ， 阻 止 ） the use of roof bolts or light
structural supports of timber or steel, provided that
such support does not alter （改变，更改） the load-carrying
capacity of the natural rock.

Theoretically, the unsupported class of methods can

be used in any type of mineral deposit (except
placers, unless frozen in place) by varying the ratio
of span of opening to the width of pillar.
However, on a practical basis, such practice would
ordinarily reach its limit on an economic basis rather
quickly.
Hence, the ratio of span to width of pillar is limited to
those values that will also result in favorable
productivity.
The unsupported methods are therefore applicable to
deposits with favorable characteristics.
These methods, however, are still the most widely
used underground, accounting for nearly 80% of the
U.S. subsurface mineral production.
There is some disagreement on the best way to
classify underground methods. For our purpose, we
will employ the classification scheme outlined in the
table before.
In that classification, the following, are considered
unsupported methods:
•Room-and-pillar mining
•Stope-and-pillar mining
•Shrinkage stoping
•Sublevel stoping
Room and Pillar Mining
Room and Pillar Mining
Stope-and-pillar mining
 Shrinkage Stoping
Negative
•Low mechanization
•Expose to safety risks
•Low productivity
-Hand helddrilling
-Mucking （清除，清理）

stopped while drilling

•Capital tied up in blast
edore
•Unsuitable for oxidizing
ore
Positive􀂃
Tailor made to follow
ore boundaries􀂃
Low investment in
capital equipment

Typical layout
Shrinkage Stoping

VCR–Vertical
Crater （口子，坑）
Retreat
VRM–Vertical
Retreat Mining
Mechanized
type of
shrinkage
stoping
Sublevel Open Stoping
Stoping layout
using top
hammer drilling
•Up holes from
extraction level
Up and / or down
holes from rilling
levels
•Max hole ength~
30 m

Blasting
towards free
space
Sublevel Open Stoping
Sublevel Open Stoping

Typical stoping layout

 Sublevel Open Stoping

Stoping layout
adapted for:
•Irregular orebody
boundaries
•Short distance between
sublevels to minimize waste/
ore ratio
•Weak hanging wall
•High amount of cable
bolting
•Narrow orebody
 Sublevel Open Stoping

Top hammer drilling upwards, 60,000 m / yr ITH drilling

downwards 75,000 m / yr No refilling of stopes
Sublevel Open Stoping

Typical problems with

in-hole deviation.

Top hammer drilling

causes more
problems than DTH /
ITH drilling.
In underground mining, unlike surface mining, there
is little distinction in the cycle of operations for the
various underground methods (except in coal
mining), the differences occurring in the direction of
mining (vertical or horizontal), the ratio of opening-to-
pillar dimensions, and the nature of the artificial
support used, if any.
Of the unsupported methods, room-and-pillar mining
and stope-and-pillar mining employ horizontal
openings, low opening-to-pillar ratios, and light-to-
moderate support in all openings.

Shrinkage and sublevel stoping utilize vertical or

steeply inclined openings (and gravity for the flow of
bulk materials), high opening-to-pillar ratios, and light
support mainly in the development openings.
Typical method Features
1.Generally low recovery of resource as pillars need to be left (40-60%)
(1)Room-and- 2.Moderately high production rate
pillar mining 3.Recovery can be improved with pillar extraction (60-80%) but caving
and subsidence will occur
(2)Stope-and- 4.Suitable for total mechanization, not labor intensive
pillar mining 5.High capital cost associated with mechanization
6.Versatile （通用的） for variety of roof conditions
1.Suited to smaller scale operations –moderately low production
(3)Shrinkage 2.Labor intensive, dangerous work conditions
stoping 3.Low capital investment
(Variations: 4.Moderately selective
Vertical Crater 5.Majority of ore tied up in the stope
Retreat) 6.Ore subject to oxidation, packing and spontaneous combustion in
stope
(4)Sublevel 1.Moderate to high production rate
stoping 2.Not labour intensive – can be mechanised
3.Low breakage and handling cost
4.Inflexible and non-selective (Recovery ~70%,dilution ~ 20%)
5.High development costs
6.Limited exposure to unsafe working conditions
4.2.1 Room and Pillar Mining

Room-and-pillar mining is a very old method applied

to horizontal or nearly horizontal deposits that has
been adapted and refined over the years.
It is the most common unsupported method and is
designed for flat-bedded deposits of limited thickness,
such as copper shale, coal, salt and potash,limestone,
and dolomite and any metallic deposits that occur in
horizontal seams. .
This method is used to recover resources in open
stopes.
Room and Pillar Mining
The method is normally arranged in a systematic and
regular patterns to support the hanging wall; to
recover the maximum amount of ore, miners aim to
leave the smallest possible pillars.
Pillars can be designed with circular or square cross
sections or shaped as elongated walls
（ 延 长 的 ， 伸 长 的 ）

separating the rooms.

In room-and-pillar mining, openings are driven

orthogonally and at regular intervals in a mineral
deposit-forming rectangular or square pillars for
natural support.
When the deposit and method are both rather
uniform, the appearance of the mine in plan view is
not unlike a checkerboard or the intersecting streets
and avenues of a city.

Minerals contained in pillars are nonrecoverable and

therefore are not included in the ore reserves of the
mine.
Differing geological conditions give rise to variations
in room-and-pillar mining.
Development openings (generally called entries) and
production openings (called rooms) closely resemble
each other; both are driven parallel and in multiple,
and when connected by crosscuts, pillars are formed.

Driving several openings at one time increases

production and efficiency by providing multiple
working places. In addition, it provides for better
ventilation and transporta­tion routes at the working
faces.
4.2.2 Stope-and-pillar mining

Stope-and-pillar mining (a stope is a

production opening in a metal mine) is a
similar method used in noncoal mines where
thicker, more irregular ore bodies occur: the
pillars are spaced randomly and located in
low-grade ore so that the high-grade ore can
be extracted.
These two methods, Stope-and-pillor
mining and Room and Pillar Mining,
account for almost all of the underground
mining in horizontal deposits in all over the
world and a very high proportion of the
underground tonnage as well.
Two other methods of the unsupported
category, shrinkage stoping and sublevel
stoping, are usually applied to steeply
dipping deposits.
Typical method Suitable conditions
Ore strength: weak to moderate
(1)Room-and- Host rock strength: moderate to strong
pillar mining Deposit shape: tabular
Deposit dip: low (<15 degrees), preferably flat
(2)Stope-and- Deposit size: large extent – not thick
pillar mining Ore grade: moderate

Ore strength: strong (other characteristics important–should

not pack, oxidise or spontaneously combust)
Host rock strength: strong to fairly strong
(3)Shrinkage Deposit shape: tabular or lenticular, defined boundaries
stoping Deposit dip: steep(>50 degrees or angle of repose)
Deposit size: 1-30m wide – fairly large extent
Ore grade: fairly high
(4)Sublevel Ore strength: moderate to strong
Host rock strength: strong
stoping Deposit shape: tabular or lenticular, regular dip and defined
boundaries
Deposit dip: steep (>45-50 degrees,preferably 60-90 degrees)
Deposit size: 6-30m wide, fairly large extent
Ore grade: moderate
Typical method Suitable condition
Ore strength: strong (other characteristics important–should
not pack, oxidise or spontaneously combust)
(3)Shrinkage Host rock strength: strong to fairly strong
stoping Deposit shape: tabular or lenticular, defined boundaries
Deposit dip: steep(>50 degrees or angle of repose)
Deposit size: 1-30m wide – fairly large extent
Ore grade: fairly high
Typical method Suitable condition
Ore strength: weak to moderate
(1)Room-and- Host rock strength: moderate to strong
pillar mining Deposit shape: tabular
Deposit dip: low (<15 degrees), preferably flat
(2)Stope-and- Deposit size: large extent – not thick
pillar mining Ore grade: moderate

Ore strength: strong (other characteristics important–should

not pack, oxidise or spontaneously combust)
Host rock strength: strong to fairly strong
(3)Shrinkage Deposit shape: tabular or lenticular, defined boundaries
stoping Deposit dip: steep(>50 degrees or angle of repose)
Deposit size: 1-30m wide – fairly large extent
Ore grade: fairly high

(4)Sublevel Ore strength: moderate to strong

Host rock strength: strong
stoping Deposit shape: tabular or lenticular, regular dip and defined
boundaries
Deposit dip: steep (>45-50 degrees,preferably 60-90 degrees)
Deposit size: 6-30m wide, fairly large extent
Ore grade: moderate
4.3 Supported Mining Method

Supported methods are those methods

that require some type of backfill to
provide substantial amounts of artificial
support to maintain stability in the
exploitation openings of the mine.
Supported methods are used when
production openings will not remain
standing during their life and when major
caving or subsidence cannot be tolerated.
In other words, the supported class is
employed when the other two categories
of methods unsupported and caving are
not applicable.
Supported mining methods are often used
in mines with weak rock structure. Cut-and-
fill stoping is the most common of these
methods and is used primarily in steeply
dipping metal deposits. The cut-and-fill
method is practiced both in the overhand
(upward) and in the underhand (downward)
directions.
4.3.1 Cut and Fill Mining

Cut and Fill Mining

•High ore recovery
-Tailor made for hanging wall and footwall
-Good visibility for geologists
-Same drilling equipment for development
and production (unless up holes drilling
is applied)
•Low productivity
•Start bottom→up high investment in
development
•at lower levels (unless underhand cut / fill)
•High cost cement, drainage, pumping
•Safety –exposure to rock falls inside stope
Supported : Cut and Fill Mining
Supported : Cut and Fill Mining
Supported : Cut and Fill Mining
4.3.2 Stull stoping

Stull stoping in an inclined, tabular deposit.

4.3.3 square-set stoping

square-set stoping in an irregular or massive deposit.

 Typical method Suitable Features
condition
1.Ore strength: 1. High ore recovery -Tailor
moderate to strong made for hanging wall and
(1) Cut-and-fill stoping footwall; -Good visibility for
2.Host rock strength:
(2) Stull stoping weak to fairly weak geologists; -Same drilling
(3) Square-set stoping equipment for development
3.Deposit shape:
and production (unless up
tabular, can be
holes drilling is applied.
irregular,
2. Low productivity,Backfilling
discontinuous
can disrupt mining operation
4.Deposit dip: 3. Low development cost :Start
steep(>45-50 bottom→up high investment
degrees) can in development at lower levels
The cut-and-fill method is
accommodate flatter (unless underhand cut / fill)
practiced both in the deposits 4. Labour intensive
overhand (upward) and in 5.Deposit size: 2-30m 5. High mining cost, due to
the underhand (downward) wide, fairly large backfilling operations,
directions. extent drainage, pumping
6.Ore grade: fairly 6. Safety –Permits good
high selectivity, is versatile, flexible
and adaptable exposure to
rock falls inside stope
4.4 Caving Mining Method

Caving methods are varied and versatile

and involve caving the ore and/ or the
overlying rock. Subsidence of the surface
normally occurs afterward.

Longwall mining is a caving method

particularly well adapted to horizontal
seams, usually coal, at some depth.
 CAVING

In this method, a face of considerable

length is maintained, and as the mining
progresses, the overlying strata are caved,
caved
thus promoting the breakage of the coal
itself.
 CAVING

We define caving methods as those

associated with induced, controlled, massive
caving of the ore body, the overlying rock, or
both, concurrent with and essential to the
conduct of mining.
 CAVING

There are three current methods that are

considered to be caving methods:
•Longwall mining
•Sublevel caving
•Block caving
Sublevel Caving
Sublevel Caving

The cave
starts below
open pit
bottom
progressing
downwards
Side walls
are allowed
to crack up,
collapse and
dilute the ore
General layout
Sublevel Caving
Sublevel Caving
Sublevel Caving
 Sublevel Caving

Sequence of
Sublevel Caving
Operations
 Sublevel Caving
􀂃For large scale orebodies
-Bulk mining
-Pillar recovery
􀂃High productivity
-Repetitive operations
-Mechanization/ Automation
􀂃Drawbacks
-High ore losses 20 -30%
-Waste dilution 25 -33%
 Block Caving

A traditional Block Caving layout

Block Caving
 Block Caving

Block Caving Principal layout

 Block Caving
•􀂃Suited for bulk mining large scale areas
•􀂃Breakability into good size blocks
•􀂃Ground surface allowed to subside
•􀂃Low cost
-Less development
-Less drilling / blasting
•􀂃Ore recovery?
•􀂃Fragmentation
•􀂃Secondary breaking
•􀂃Profit? High risk
 Longwall mining

Longwall mining is used in horizontal,

tabular deposits, mainly coal: the other
methods have application to inclined or
vertical, massive deposits, almost
exclusively metallic or nonmetallic.
Longwall mining
 Typical method Suitable condition Features
1.Ore strength: any, 1. Extremely high
Longwall mining preferably weak and can productivity;
be cut by continuous 2. low labour
methods miner requirements;
2.Host rock strength: weak
3. Low mining
to moderate strength,must
cost;
break and cave, floor must
be non plastic 4. high capital
3.Deposit shape: tabular cost;
4.Deposit dip: low (<12 5. Highly
degrees) mechanised;
5.Deposit size: large 6. Method
extent, thin bedded and of inflexible and
uniform thickness rigid in layout
6.Ore grade: moderate and and execution,
uniform no Selectivity;
7. Surface
subsidence will
occur.
 Typical method Suitable condition Features
1.Ore strength: 1. High production
moderate to fairly rate, large scale
Sublevel Caving strong, should method;
competent to stand
2. High recovery,
without support;
high dilution;
2.Host rock strength:
weak to strong, should 3. Suitable for full
be cavable; mechanization;
3.Deposit shape: tabular 4. Caving and
or massive; subsidence
4.Deposit dip: steep(>60 occurs;
degrees), can be flat if 5. Draw control
the deposit is fairly important;
thick;
6. High
5.Deposit size: large, development
extensive vertically; costs;
6.Ore grade: moderate.
7. Some selectivity
and flexibility;
 Typical method Suitable condition Features
1.Ore strength: weak to 1.High productivity, low
strong, must be fractured mining cost (comparable to
Block Caving or jointed and cave open pit mining);
freely; 2.Large scale method, high
2.Host rock strength: production rates;
weak to moderate, 3.High recovery and
similar to ore in potentially high dilution;
characteristics; 4.Rock breakage by caving –
3.Deposit shape: massive no blasting costs;
or thick tabular, fairly 5.Large scale caving and
regular; subsidence, wholesale
4.Deposit dip: steep(>60 damage to surface;
degrees or vertical); 6.Good draw control
5.Deposit size: very essential;
large; 7.Slow, extensive and costly
6.Ore grade: low, development;
uniform.
8.Highly mechanised;
9.Inflexible.
4.5 Factors in Selection

There are many factors, both quantitative

and qualitative, that must be evaluated in
the choice of a mining method. The
following are the primary variables that
must be considered:
(1) Spatial characteristics of the deposit.
(2) Geologic and hydrologic conditions.

(3) Geotechnical (soil and rock mechanics)

properties.

(4) Economic considerations.

(5) Technological factors.

(6) Environmental concerns.

(1) Spatial characteristics of the deposit.

These factors play a dominant role in the

choice of a mining method, because they
largely affect the production rate, and
determine the method of materials handling
and the layout of the mine in the ore body.
 Spatial characteristics:
•Size (especially height, thickness, and overall dimensions)
•Shape (tabular, lenticular, massive, or irregular)
•Attitude (inclination or dip)
•Depth
•Regularity of the ore boundaries
•Existence of previous mining
(2)Geologic and hydrologic conditions.

Geologic characteristics of the ore and

surrounding country rock influence method
selection, especially choices between
selective and nonselective methods, and
ground support requirements for
underground mines.
 Hydrology affects drainage and pumping
requirements.

Mineralogy governs solution mining,

mineral processing, and smelting
requirements.
 Geologic characteristics:
•Mineralogy and petrography (e.g., sulfides vs. oxides in
copper)

•Chemical composition (primary and secondary minerals)

•Deposit structure (folds, faults, discontinuities, intrusions)
•Planes of weakness (joint, fractures, shear zones, cleavage
in minerals, cleat in coal)

•Uniformity of grade
•Alteration and weathered zones
•Existence of strata gases
(3)Geotechnical (soil and rock mechanics)
properties.

The mechanical properties of ore and

waste are key factors in selecting the
equipment in selecting the class of
methods (unsupported, supported, and
caving) if underground.
 Geotechnical properties:
•Elastic properties (strength, modulus of elasticity,
Poisson's ratio, etc.)
•Plastic or visco-elastic behavior (flow, creep)
•State of stress (pre-mining, post-mining)
•Rock mass rating (overall ability of openings to stand
unsupported or with support)
•Other physical properties affecting competence
(specific gravity, voids, porosity, permeability, moisture
content, etc.)
(4)Economic considerations.

Ultimately, economics determines

whether a mining method should be
chosen, because economic factors affect
output, investment, cash flow, payback
period, and profit.
 Economic considerations:
•Reserves (tonnage and grade)

•Production rate (output per unit time)

•Mine life (total operating period for development

and exploitation)

•Productivity (tons or tonnes/employee hour)

•Comparative mining costs of suitable methods

•Comparative capital costs of suitable methods

(5) Technological factors:

The best match between the natural conditions

and the mining method is sought. Specific
methods may be excluded because of their
adverse effects on subsequent operations (e.g.
processing, smelting, environmental problems,
etc.).
 Technological factors:
•Recovery (proportion of the ore that is
extracted)
•Dilution (amount of waste that must be
produced with the ore)
•Flexibility of the method to changing conditions
•Selectivity of the method (ability to extract ore
and leave waste)
•Concentration or dispersion of workings
•Ability to mechanize and automate
•Capital and labor intensities
(6) Environmental concerns.

The physical, social, political, and economic

climate must be considered and will, on
occasion, require that a mining method be
rejected because of these concerns.
 Environmental concerns:
•Ground control to maintain integrity of openings
•Subsidence, or caving effects at the surface
•Atmospheric control (ventilation. air quality
control, heat and humidity control)
•Availability of suitable waste disposal areas
•Workforce (availability, training, living.
community conditions)
•Comparative safety conditions of the suitable
mining methods
 The selection of a mining method is
shifting from an activity that is
primarily an art to one that is
primarily science.
 Conclusions
Selection of a suitable mining method for a
deposit is a function of
• orebody geometry
• size
• geomechanical setting
• orebody value and spatial distribution
• engineering environment
4.6 Guidelines and Procedure
In choosing a mining method, experience with
numerous methods will play a major role. The reason
is that some of the factors outlined earlier cannot be
evaluated on a quantitative basis.

However, reaching an optimal decision, is facilitated

and strengthened by the use of quantitative and
engineering evaluation, including operations research
methods,
methods aided by computerized information
gathering and data analysis.
 It is when quantitative and intuitive methods are in
total agreement that the mining method selected will be
most successful.

Engineering evaluation in the selection of a mine

method selected out on three levels .

First, in the conceptual study,study the physical

characteristics and production potentials of a number
of mining methods, layouts, and systems are
assessed.
assessed
Next, in the engineering study,
study the preceding
concepts are quantified and compared, resulting in
firm designs and costs.

Finally, in the detailed design study,

study drawings and
specifications for construction for the preferred
method are prepared.

The result is a final engineering report on which

the investment decisions, equipment purchases, and
construction schedule are based.
During this three-step process, the potential for
upgrading any mining method should be considered.
The decision makers should consider
whether any bigger or better equipment has come on
the scene,
whether any new variations in the method are being
tested to improve output,
or whether any new mechanization or automation
technologies can enhance the production or cost
performance of the chosen mining method.
New and better mining methods have evolved
through this process.