Data Mining:

Concepts and Techniques

— Chapter 2 —

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 Chapter 2: Getting to Know Your Data

 Data Objects and Attribute Types

 Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

 Data Visualization

 Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity

 Summary

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 Types of Data Sets
 Record
 Relational records
 Data matrix, e.g., numerical matrix,

timeout

season
coach

game
score
team

ball

lost
pla
crosstabs

wi
n
y
 Document data: text documents: term-
frequency vector
Document 1 3 0 5 0 2 6 0 2 0 2
 Transaction data
 Graph and network Document 2 0 7 0 2 1 0 0 3 0 0
 World Wide Web
Document 3 0 1 0 0 1 2 2 0 3 0
 Social or information networks
 Molecular Structures
 Ordered TID Items
 Video data: sequence of images
1 Bread, Coke, Milk
 Temporal data: time-series
 Sequential Data: transaction sequences 2 Beer, Bread
 Genetic sequence data 3 Beer, Coke, Diaper, Milk
 Spatial, image and multimedia: 4 Beer, Bread, Diaper, Milk
 Spatial data: maps 5 Coke, Diaper, Milk
 Image data:
 Video data:

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 Data Objects

 Data sets are made up of data objects.

 A data object represents an entity.
 Examples:
 sales database: customers, store items, sales
 medical database: patients, treatments
 university database: students, professors, courses
 Also called samples , examples, instances, data points,
objects, tuples.
 Data objects are described by attributes.
 Database rows -> data objects; columns ->attributes.
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 Attributes
 Attribute (or dimensions, features, variables): a
data field, representing a characteristic or feature of a
data object.
 E.g., customer _ID, name, address

 Types:
 Nominal

 Binary
Qualitative Attributes
 Ordinal

 Numeric: quantitative

 Interval-scaled

 Ratio-scaled

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 Attribute Types
 Nominal: categories, states, or “names of things”
 Hair_color = {auburn, black, blond, brown, grey, red, white }
 marital status, occupation, ID numbers, zip codes
 Binary
 Nominal attribute with only 2 states (0 and 1)
 Symmetric binary: both outcomes equally important
 e.g., gender
 Asymmetric binary: outcomes not equally important.
 e.g., medical test (positive vs. negative)
 Convention: assign 1 to most important outcome (e.g., HIV
positive)
 Ordinal
 Values have a meaningful order (ranking) but magnitude between
successive values is not known.
 Size = {small, medium, large}, grades, army rankings
 Numeric Attributes - is quantitative; that is, it is a measurable quantity,
represented in integer or real values.
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 Numeric Attribute Types
 Quantity (integer or real-valued)
 Interval
 Measured on a scale of equal-sized units
 Values have order
 E.g., temperature in C˚or F˚, calendar dates
 No true zero-point (C˚or F˚ 0 does not mean no
temperature, C˚or F˚ 20 is not twice the temperature of
C˚or F˚ 10)
 Ratio
 Inherent zero-point
 We can speak of values as being an order of magnitude
larger than the unit of measurement (10 years age is
twice as as 5 years of age).
 e.g., temperature in Kelvin, length, counts, monetary
quantities
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 Discrete vs. Continuous Attributes
 Discrete Attribute
 Has only a finite or countably infinite set of values

 E.g., zip codes, profession, or the set of words in a

collection of documents
 Sometimes, represented as integer variables

 Note: Binary attributes are a special case of discrete

attributes
 Continuous Attribute
 Has real numbers as attribute values

 E.g., temperature, height, or weight

 Practically, real values can only be measured and

represented using a finite number of digits

 Continuous attributes are typically represented as

floating-point variables
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 Chapter 2: Getting to Know Your Data

 Data Objects and Attribute Types

 Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

 Data Visualization

 Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity

 Summary

10
 Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data
 Motivation
 To better understand the data: central tendency,
variation
 Distributive measure
 A measure that can be computed by partitioning the data into
smaller subsets, computing the measure for each subset and
then merging the results. Eg sum, count
 Algebraic measure
 A measure that can be computed by applying algebraic fn to one
or more distributive measure. Eg Average= Sum/Count
 Holistic Measure
 A measure that is to be computed on entire set of data and
cannot be computed by partitioning data. Eq Median

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 Measuring the Central Tendency
 Mean (algebraic measure) (sample vs. population): 1 n
x   xi   x
Note: n is sample size and N is population size. n i 1 N
n
 Weighted arithmetic mean:
 Trimmed mean: chopping extreme values
w x i i
x i 1
n
 Median: (Holistic measure)
w i
 Middle value if odd number of values, or average of the i 1

middle two values otherwise

 Estimated by interpolation (for grouped data):

n / 2  ( freq )l
 Mode median  L1  ( ) width
freq median
 Value that occurs most frequently in the data
 Unimodal, bimodal, trimodal
 Empirical formula:
mean  mode  3  (mean  median)
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Symmetric vs. Skewed Data
 Median, mean and mode of symmetric, symmetric
positively and negatively skewed data

positively skewed negatively skewed

August 19, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 13

 Measuring the Dispersion of Data
 Quartiles, outliers and boxplots
 Quartiles: Q1 (25th percentile), Q3 (75th percentile)
 Inter-quartile range: IQR = Q3 – Q1
 Five number summary: min, Q1, median, Q3, max
 Boxplot: ends of the box are the quartiles; median is marked; add
whiskers, and plot outliers individually
 Outlier: usually, a value higher/lower than 1.5 x IQR
 Variance and standard deviation (sample: s, population: σ)
 Variance: (algebraic, scalable computation)
1 n 1 n 2 1 n 1 n
1 n
s 
2

n  1 i 1
( xi  x ) 
2
[ xi  ( xi ) 2 ]
n  1 i 1 n i 1
 
2

N

i 1
( xi  
2
) 
N
 xi   2
i 1
2

 Standard deviation s (or σ) is the square root of variance s2 (or σ2)

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 Properties of Normal Distribution Curve

 The normal (distribution) curve

 From μ–σ to μ+σ: contains about 68% of the

measurements (μ: mean, σ: standard deviation)

 From μ–2σ to μ+2σ: contains about 95% of it
 From μ–3σ to μ+3σ: contains about 99.7% of it

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 Boxplot Analysis
 Five-number summary of a distribution
 Minimum, Q1, Median, Q3, Maximum
 Boxplot
 Data is represented with a box
 The ends of the box are at the first and third
quartiles, i.e., the height of the box is IQR
 The median is marked by a line within the
box
 Whiskers: two lines outside the box extended
to Minimum and Maximum
 Outliers: points beyond a specified outlier
threshold, plotted individually

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Graphic Displays of Basic Statistical Descriptions

 Boxplot: graphic display of five-number summary

 Histogram: x-axis are values, y-axis repres. frequencies
 Quantile plot:
 Quantile-quantile (q-q) plot:
 Scatter plot: each pair of values is a pair of coordinates
and plotted as points in the plane

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 Visualization of Data Dispersion: 3-D Boxplots

August 19, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 18

 Quantile Plot
 Displays all of the data (allowing the user to assess both
the overall behavior and unusual occurrences)
 Plots quantile information
 For a data x data sorted in increasing order, f
i i
indicates that approximately 100 fi% of the data are
below or equal to the value xi

Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 19

 Quantile-Quantile (Q-Q) Plot
 Graphs the quantiles of one univariate distribution against the
corresponding quantiles of another
 View: Is there a shift in going from one distribution to another?
 Example shows unit price of items sold at Branch 1 vs. Branch 2 for
each quantile. Unit prices of items sold at Branch 1 tend to be lower
than those at Branch 2.

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 Histogram Analysis
 Histogram: Graph display of 40
tabulated frequencies, shown as
35
bars
 It shows what proportion of cases 30
fall into each of several categories 25
 The categories are specified as non- 20
overlapping intervals of some 15
variable. The categories (bars) must
10
be adjacent
 What is the difference between a 5
Histogram and a Bar Chart 0
10000 30000 50000 70000 90000

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Histograms Often Tell More than Boxplots

 The two histograms

shown in the left may
have the same boxplot
representation
 The same values
for: min, Q1,
median, Q3, max
 But they have rather
different data
distributions

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 Scatter plot
 An effective graphical method for determining if there is a
relationship, pattern or correlation between two numeric
attributes.
 Each pair of values is treated as a pair of coordinates and plotted
as points in the plane

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Positively and Negatively Correlated Data

 The left half fragment is positively

correlated
 The right half is negative correlated

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Uncorrelated Data

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 Chapter 2: Getting to Know Your Data

 Data Objects and Attribute Types

 Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

 Data Visualization

 Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity

 Summary

26
 Chapter 2: Getting to Know Your Data

 Data Objects and Attribute Types

 Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

 Data Visualization

 Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity

 Summary

48
 Similarity and Dissimilarity
 Proximity refers to a similarity or dissimilarity
 Similarity
 Numerical measure of how alike two data objects are

 Value is higher when objects are more alike

 Often falls in the range [0,1]

 Dissimilarity (e.g., distance)

 Numerical measure of how different two data objects are

 Lower when objects are more alike

 Minimum dissimilarity is often 0

 Upper limit varies

 Similarity = 1- Dissimilarity

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 Data Matrix and Dissimilarity Matrix
 Data matrix
 n data points with p  x11 ... x1f ... x1p 
dimensions  
 ... ... ... ... ... 
x ... xif ... xip 
 i1 
 ... ... ... ... ... 
x ... xnf ... xnp 
 n1 
 Dissimilarity matrix
 n data points, but  0 
registers only the  d(2,1) 0 
 
distance  d(3,1) d ( 3,2) 0 
 Distance is always non-  
 : : : 
negative d ( n,1) d ( n,2) ... ... 0
 A triangular matrix

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 Proximity Measure for Nominal Attributes

 Can take 2 or more states, e.g., red, yellow, blue,

green (generalization of a binary attribute)
 Method 1: Simple matching
m: # of matches, p: total # of variables


d (i, j)  p 
p
m

Object 1-(BSc, Male, Dhaka, Military)

Object 2-(MSc, Male, Dhaka, Civilian)
d(1,2) = (4-2)/4 = 0.5

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 Proximity Measure for Binary Attributes
Object j
 A contingency table for binary data
Object i

 Distance measure for symmetric

binary variables:
 Distance measure for asymmetric
binary variables:
 Jaccard coefficient (similarity
measure for asymmetric binary
variables):

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 Dissimilarity between Binary Variables
 Example
Name Gender Fever Cough Test-1 Test-2 Test-3 Test-4
Jack M Y N P N N N
Mary F Y N P N P N
Jim M Y P N N N N

 Gender is a symmetric attribute

 The remaining attributes are asymmetric binary
 Let the values Y and P be 1, and the value N 0
01
d ( jack , mary )   0.33
2 01
11
d ( jack , jim )   0.67
111
1 2
d ( jim , mary )   0.75
11 2
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 Distance Measure for Numeric attributes
 Manhattan (city block, L1 norm) distance
 E.g., the Hamming distance: the number of bits that are
different between two binary vectors
d (i, j) | x  x |  | x  x | ... | x  x |
i1 j1 i2 j 2 ip jp

 Euclidean distance
d (i, j)  (| x  x |2  | x  x |2 ... | x  x |2 )
i1 j1 i2 j 2 ip jp

Properties
d(i, j) > 0 if i ≠ j, and d(i, i) = 0 (Positive definiteness)
d(i, j) = d(j, i) (Symmetry)
d(i, j)  d(i, k) + d(k, j) (Triangle Inequality)
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 Example: Minkowski Distance
Dissimilarity Matrices
point attribute 1 attribute 2 Manhattan (L1)
x1 1 2
L x1 x2 x3 x4
x2 3 5 x1 0
x3 2 0 x2 5 0
x4 4 5 x3 3 6 0
x4 6 1 7 0
Euclidean (L2)
x2 x4
L2 x1 x2 x3 x4
4 x1 0
x2 3.61 0
x3 2.24 5.1 0
x4 4.24 1 5.39 0

2 x1

x3
0 2 4
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 Chapter 2: Getting to Know Your Data

 Data Objects and Attribute Types

 Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

 Data Visualization

 Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity

 Summary

63
 Summary
 Data attribute types: nominal, binary, ordinal, interval-scaled, ratio-
scaled
 Many types of data sets, e.g., numerical, text, graph, Web, image.
 Gain insight into the data by:
 Basic statistical data description: central tendency, dispersion,
graphical displays
 Data visualization: map data onto graphical primitives
 Measure data similarity
 Above steps are the beginning of data preprocessing.
 Many methods have been developed but still an active area of
research.

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 References
 W. Cleveland, Visualizing Data, Hobart Press, 1993
 T. Dasu and T. Johnson. Exploratory Data Mining and Data Cleaning. John Wiley, 2003
 U. Fayyad, G. Grinstein, and A. Wierse. Information Visualization in Data Mining and
Knowledge Discovery, Morgan Kaufmann, 2001
 L. Kaufman and P. J. Rousseeuw. Finding Groups in Data: an Introduction to Cluster
Analysis. John Wiley & Sons, 1990.
 H. V. Jagadish, et al., Special Issue on Data Reduction Techniques. Bulletin of the Tech.
Committee on Data Eng., 20(4), Dec. 1997
 D. A. Keim. Information visualization and visual data mining, IEEE trans. on Visualization
and Computer Graphics, 8(1), 2002
 D. Pyle. Data Preparation for Data Mining. Morgan Kaufmann, 1999
 S.  Santini and R. Jain,” Similarity measures”, IEEE Trans. on Pattern Analysis and
Machine Intelligence, 21(9), 1999
 E. R. Tufte. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, 2nd ed., Graphics Press, 2001
 C. Yu , et al., Visual data mining of multimedia data for social and behavioral studies,
Information Visualization, 8(1), 2009

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