Data and Computer
Communications
Chapter 18 – Internet Protocols
Ninth Edition
by William Stallings
Data and Computer Communications, Ninth
Edition by William Stallings, (c) Pearson
Education - Prentice Hall, 2011
Internet Protocols
She occupied herself with studying a map on the
opposite wall because she knew she would have
to change trains at some point. Tottenham Court
Road must be that point, an interchange from the
black line to the red. This train would take her
there, was bearing her there rapidly now, and at
the station she would follow the signs, for signs
there must be, to the Central Line going
westward.
—King Solomon's Carpet.
Barbara Vine (Ruth Rendell)
Internet
internet
• an interconnected set of networks where each of
the constituent networks retains its identity
end systems
• devices attached to a network
intermediate systems
• provide a communications path and perform the
necessary relaying and routing functions
bridges
• acts as a relay of frames between similar networks
routers
• routes packets between potentially different networks
Internetworking
Terms
TCP/IP Concepts
Differences in Networks
addressing schemes
maximum packet size
network access mechanisms
timeouts
error recovery
status reporting
routing techniques
user access control
connection, connectionless
Connectionless Operation
Internetworking involves connectionless
operation at the level of the Internet
Protocol (IP)
IP
• initially developed for the DARPA internet
project
• protocol is needed to access a particular
network
Connectionless Internetworking
Connectionless internet facility is flexible
IP provides a connectionless service
between end systems.
Advantages:
• is flexible
• can be made robust
• does not impose unnecessary overhead
IP
Operation
LAPF : link access
protocol for frame
(frame relay)
IP Design Issues
routing
datagram lifetime
fragmentation and reassembly
error control
flow control
The Internet as a Network
Routing
source routing
• indicate next
router to which
• source specifies route recording
datagram is sent
• static route to be (for testing &
followed debugging)
• dynamic
• can be useful for
ES / routers maintain security & priority
routing tables
Datagram Lifetime
datagrams could loop indefinitely
consumes resources
transport protocol may need upper bound on
lifetime of a datagram
• can mark datagram with lifetime
• when lifetime expires, datagram discarded
Fragmentation and
Re-assembly
protocol exchanges data between two entities
lower-level protocols may need to break data up into
smaller blocks, called fragmentation
reasons for fragmentation:
network only accepts blocks of a certain size
more efficient error control & smaller retransmission units
fairer access to shared facilities
smaller buffers
disadvantages:
smaller buffers
more interrupts & processing time
Fragmentation and
Re-assembly
packets get
smaller as data
at destination traverses internet
issue of when to need large buffers
re-assemble at routers
intermediate re- buffers may fill
assembly with fragments
all fragments must
go through same
router
IP Fragmentation
IP re-assembles at destination only
uses fields in header
Data Unit Identifier (ID)
• identifies end-system-originated datagram
Data length
• length of user data in octets
Offset
• position of fragment of user data in original datagram
• in multiples of 64 bits (8 octets)
More flag
• indicates that this is not the last fragment
Fragmentation Example
Error and Flow Control
Error control Flow control
discarded datagram allows routers to limit
identification is needed the rate they receive
reasons for discarded data
datagrams include: send flow control
• lifetime expiration packets requesting
• congestion reduced data flow
• FCS error (ICMP)
(frame check
sequence)
Internet Protocol (IP) v4
defined in RFC 791
www.rfc-editor.org
partof TCP/IP suite
two parts
specification of
specification of
actual protocol
interface with a
format and
higher layer
mechanisms
IP Services
Primitives Parameters
specifies functions to used to pass data and
be performed control information
form of primitive
implementation
dependent
Send : request
transmission of data
unit
Deliver : notify user of
arrival of data unit
IP Parameters
source & destination addresses
protocol
type of Service
identification
“don’t fragment” indicator
time to live
data length
option data
user data
IP Options
route
security
recording
source
routing
stream
identification timestamping
IPv4 Header
IPv4 Header
http://www.tcpipguide.com/free/t_IPDatagr
amGeneralFormat.htm
Important: the « Protocol » field identifies
the nature of the next header (in the data
portion of the IP packet) Ex: TCP, ICMP
http://www.iana.org/assignments/protocol-num
bers/protocol-numbers.xml
IPv4 Address Formats
IP Addresses - Class A
start with binary 0
all 0 reserved
01111111 reserved for loopback
• (localhost 127.0.0.1)
range 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x
IP Addresses - Class B
start with binary 10
range 128.x.x.x to 191.x.x.x
second octet also included in network
address
214 = 16,384 class B addresses
IP Addresses - Class C
start with binary 110
range 192.x.x.x to 223.x.x.x
second and third octet also part of network
address
221 = 2,097,152 addresses
nearly all allocated
see IPv6
IP Addresses
Decimal code to simplify address
management.
00001010 00000000 00000000 00000000 = 10.0.0.0 (classe A)
Class A examples:
• BBN (4.0.0.0) , General Electric (3.0.0.0), Apple
(17.0.0.0), AT&T (12.0.0.0), IBM (9.0.0.0), MIT
(18.0.0.0)
Class B example : UQAC (132.212.0.0)
IP Addresses
IP addresses index :
http://cqcounter.com/whois/ip/
(http://www.ip2location.com/)
IP Addresses
Special cases :
"loopback address" : 127.0.0.1
Non-routable addresses :
• 10.0.0.0 à 10.255.255.255 (Class A)
• 172.16.0.0 à 172.31.255.255 (Class B)
• 192.168.0.0 à 192.168.255.255 (Class C)
if hostid = 00....0 => IP address of the local network
if hostid = 111....1 => "broadcast" address of the local
network
IP Addresses
Addresses assigned by central organisations
IANA (ARIN, RIPR NCC, LACNIC and APNIC)
InterNIC: www.internic.net (http://www.internic.ca/)
Godaddy
IP Addresses
Configuration
ipconfig /all
netmask, default gateway…
ping 127.0.0.1 (and pinging your own
address)
Subnets and Subnet Masks
allows arbitrary complexity of internetworked
LANs within organization
insulate overall internet from growth of network
numbers and routing complexity
site looks to rest of internet like single network
each LAN assigned subnet number
host portion of address partitioned into subnet
number and host number
local routers route within subnetted network
subnet mask indicates which bits are subnet
number and which are host number
IP Addresses and Subnet Masks
Other
notation used to represent the
netmask: CIDR notation
The
number after the ‘/’ represents the
number of ‘1’ of the netmask.
Ex.: 132.212.203.0/24 indicates that
the netmask is 255.255.255.0
Subnet mask:
Allows to define netid and subnetid.
Class C address example: 200.123.15.0
Document 1
Document 2
Subnets and Subnet Masks
When is the default gateway actually used ?
Decision based on netmask
Notes:
RFC 950 suggest not to use subnets having all 0s and all
1s. (2 subnets not used)
Modern routers can use those two particular subnets..
To display routing table on a PC : netstat –r
• A computer can have more than one interface
Each has a default gateway
• Example of use : route.xls
extracted from : Document
Subnets and Subnet Masks
Subnets and Subnet Masks
NAT (network address translation)
Formerly « IP masquarading » (using LINUX)
Remapping of IP addresses
Can be implemented in various ways…
Popular method : « port forwarding »
table of correspondence (stored in the gatway
memory)
Proxy server..
Subnets and Subnet Masks
Obtaining an IP address
DHCP :
dynamic host configuration protocol
belongs to the application layer
uses UDP port 68 on the client and port 67 on
the server
see figure in
http://
wiki.cas.mcmaster.ca/index.php/Dynamic_Host_
Configuration_Protocol
Information sent by DHCP server
Default gateway
Domain name
Name servers …
Network adapter
configuration
In a command window => ipconfig /all
In a program, one can use GetAdaptersInfo()
https
://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa
366062(v=vs.85).
aspx
Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP)
need MAC address to send to LAN host
• manual
• included in network address
• use central directory
• use ARP (address resolution protocol)
ARP (RFC 826) provides dynamic “IP to
Ethernet” address mapping
• source broadcasts ARP request
• destination replies with ARP response
Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP)
Sequence of events :
• See
http://www.tcpipguide.com/free/t_ARPAddressSpecificationandGeneralOperation-2.htm
• Broadcast at the MAC (Ethernet) level
• No IP header => just ARP header
To read the arp table on a PC : arp –a
Note: one can modify the arp table if he has admin status …
(« spoofing »)
Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMP)
RFC 792
transfer messages from routers and hosts
to hosts
provides feedback about problems
• datagram cannot reach its destination
• router does not have buffer capacity to forward
• router can send traffic on a shorter route
encapsulated in IP datagram
hence not reliable
ICMP Message Format
(inserted at the end of the IP header)
Common ICMP Messages
destinationunreachable
time exceeded (traceroute)
parameter problem
source quench
redirect
echo & echo reply
timestamp & timestamp reply
address mask request & reply
IP Versions
IP v 1-3 defined and replaced
IP v4 - current version
IP v5 - streams protocol
IP v6 - replacement for IP v4
during development, it was called IPng (IP
Next Generation)
Why Change IP?
address space
exhaustion: requirements for new types of
• two level addressing (network service
and host) wastes space • address configuration
• network addresses used even • routing flexibility
if not connected • traffic support
• growth of networks and the
Internet
• extended use of TCP/IP
• single address per host
IPv6 RFCs
RFC 1752 - Recommendations for the IP Next
Generation Protocol
requirements
PDU formats
addressing, routing security issues
RFC 2460 - overall specification
RFC 4291 - addressing structure
IPv6 Enhancements
expanded 128-bit address space
improved option mechanism
most not examined by intermediate routes
dynamic address assignment (no more
DHCP)
increased addressing flexibility
anycast & multicast
support for resource allocation
labeled packet flows
IPv6
Basics:
• Network prefix (48 bits) + subnet (16 bits) +
interface ID (64 bits)
Interface ID can be used for additionnal subnet masking
• www.tc.mtu.edu/ipv6/basics.php
• Expanded and Compressed notation (: ::)
Uncompressed: fc00:0:3:0:0:0:23:a
Compressed: fc00:0:3::23:a
• Can compress only once
• Leading and ending zeros can be omitted
Examples: ::1 and fc00:0:3:1ad3::
• Netmask (CIDR notation Ex: /48)
IPv6
Basics:
• http://www.tunnelsup.com/subnet-calculator
Calculate
• 2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334/64
• 2001:0db8:85a3::/48/64 (see subnet prefix)
Brackets in URL : http://[2001:db8:85a3:8d3:1319:8a2e:370:7348]/
(colon usually defines ports so backets are required to avoid confusion)
IPv6
Address types :
http://www.ripe.net/lir-services/new-lir/ipv6_reference_card.pdf
• Link local addresses are used in one single network
segment, they can't be routed. Unique local addresses can
be routed, but only within one routing domain. So an ISP can
choose to use ULA for services which can't be publicly
accessible.
• Note: the example of unique local addresses is not correct
(should be fc00:f53b:82e4::53)
• Address space still not completely defined
• Ex PC de l’UQAC : fe80::517:ed90:ee5:7e15/10
http://
www.iana.org/assignments/ipv6-address-s
IPv6
PDU
(Packet)
Structure
IP v6 Header
IP v6 Flow Label
related sequence of packets
special handling
A flow is identified by source and destination
addresses + flow label
router treats flow as sharing attributes
may treat flows differently (a particular flow uses
the same path -> guarantees same order
delivery)
alternative to including all information in every
header
have requirements on flow label processing
IPv6 Addresses
128 bits long
assigned to interface
single interface may have multiple unicast
addresses
three types of addresses:
• unicast - single interface address
• anycast - one of a set of interface addresses
(still no clear usage of anycast…)
• multicast - all of a set of interfaces
Hop-by-Hop Options
must be examined by every router
if unknown discard/forward handling is specified
next header
header extension length
options
Pad1
PadN
Jumbo payload (> 64kB)
Router alert
Fragmentation Header
In IPv6, fragmentation only allowed at source
no fragmentation at intermediate routers
node must perform path discovery to find
smallest MTU of intermediate networks
set source fragments to match MTU
otherwise limit to 1280 octets
Routing Header
contains a list of one or more intermediate nodes
to be visited on the way to a packet’s destination
• next header
header • header extension length
includes • routing type
• segments left
• initial destination address is first on list
Type 0 routing • current destination address is next on
provides a list list
of addresses • final destination address will be last in
list
Destination Options Header
carries optional format same as
information for hop-by-hop
destination node header
IPv6 Extension Headers
Virtual Private Network (VPN)
set
of computers interconnected using an
unsecure network
• e.g. linking corporate LANs over Internet
usingencryption & special protocols
to provide security against
• eavesdropping
• entry point for unauthorized users
proprietary solutions are problematical
• development of IPSec standard
IPSec
RFC 1636 (1994) identified security need
encryption and authentication necessary
security features in IPv6
designed also for use with current IPv4
applications needing security include:
branch office connectivity
remote access over Internet
extranet and intranet connectivity for partners
electronic commerce security
IPSec Functions
authentication header (AH)
• for authentication only
Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP)
• for combined authentication/encryption
a key exchange function
• manual or automated
VPNs usually need combined function
IP Security Scenario
Benefits of IPsec
provides strong security for external traffic
resistant to bypass
Located below transport layer hence
=> transparent to applications
can be transparent to end users
can provide security for individual users if
needed
IPsec vs https
https
encrypts data at the application level
uses special port 443
IPsec
encrypts data at the network level
all applications data (not only http data) are
encrypted.
any port can be used
Summary
internetworking principles
Internet protocol operation
design issues, connectionless operation
IP
services, addresses, subnets, ICMP, ARP
IPv6
structure, header, addresses
VPNs and IP Security
IPsec applications, benefits, functions
