2012

Chemical
Bonding and
structure
Comprehensive tutorial notes
POWERPOINT VERSION
WATH ACADEMIC SERVICES
Julius G. Thungu
[email protected] [email protected]
1
A.CHEMICAL BONDING
A chemical bond is formed when atoms of the same or
different elements share, gain, donate or delocalize their
outer
electrons to combine during chemical reactions inorder
to be stable.
Atoms have equal number of negatively charged
electrons in the energy levels and positively charged
protons in the nucleus.
Atoms are chemically stable if they have filled outer
energy level.
An energy level is full if it has duplet (2) or octet (8)
state in outer energy level.
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Noble gases have duplet /octet.
All other atoms try to be like noble gases through
chemical reactions and forming molecules.
Only electrons in the outer energy level take part
in formation of a chemical bond.
There are three main types of chemical bonds
formed by atoms:
(i) covalent bond
(ii) ionic/electrovalent bond
(iii) metallic bond
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(i) COVALENT BOND
A covalent bond is formed when atoms of the same or
different element share some or all the outer energy
level electrons to combine during chemical reactions
inorder to attain stable duplet or octet.
A shared pair of electrons is attracted by the nucleus
(protons) of the two atoms sharing.
Covalent bonds are mainly formed by non-metals to form
molecules.
A molecule is a group of atoms of the same or different
elements held together by a covalent bond.

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 The number of atoms making a molecule is called
atomicity.
Noble gases are monatomic because they are
stable and thus do not bond with each other or
other atoms
Most other common gases are diatomic
The more the number of electrons shared, the
stronger the covalent bond.
A pair of electrons that do not take part in the
formation of a covalent bond is called a lone pair
of electrons.
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 Mathematically, the number of electrons to be
shared by an atom is equal to the number of
electrons remaining for the atom to be
stable/attain duplet/octet /have maximum
electrons in outer energy level.
a)hydrogen molecule is made up of two
hydrogen atoms in the outer energy level each
requiring one electron to have a stable duplet.
To show the formation of covalent bonding in the
molecule then the following data/information is
required;
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 Symbol of atom/element taking part in bonding H
Number of protons/electrons 1

Electron configuration/structure 1:

Number of electron in outer energy level 1

Number of electrons remaining to be stable/shared 1
Number of electrons not shared(lone pairs) 0

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 Note:
After bonding the following intramolecular
forces exist:
(i)the attraction of the shared electrons by
both nucleus /protons of the atoms
(ii) the repulsion of the nucleus of one atom
on the other.
(iii)balance of the attraction and repulsion is
maintained inside/intramolecular/within the
molecule.
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 E2

P1 P2

E1
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 (iv)Protons(P1) from nucleus of atom 1
repel protons (P2) from nucleus of atom 2.
(v)Electron (E1) in the energy levels of
atom 1 repel electron (E2) in the energy
levels of atom 2.
(vi) Protons(P1) from nucleus of atom 1
attract electron (E2) in the energy levels of
atom 2.
(vii) protons (P2) from nucleus of atom 2
attract electron (E2) in the energy levels of
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 HH x●

2 (one pair) electrons shared between

hydrogen atoms
H2 (diatomic molecule)
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 b) Fluorine, chlorine, bromine and
iodine molecules are made up also of
two atoms sharing the outer energy
level electrons to have a stable octet.

To show the formation of covalent

bonding in the molecule then the
following data/information is required;

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 (i) fluorine
Symbol of atom/element taking part in bonding F
F
Number of protons/electrons 9
9
Electron configuration/structure 2:7
2:7
Number of electron in outer energy level 7
7
Number of electrons remaining to be stable/shared
1 1
Number of outer electrons not shared( 3-lone pairs)
6 6
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 xx ●●

xx

F F xx
x●

●●
●●

F2 (diatomic molecule)
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 (ii) chlorine
Symbol of atom/element taking part in bonding Cl
Cl
Number of protons/electrons 17
17
Electron configuration/structure 2:8:7
2:8:7
Number of electron in outer energy level 7
7
Number of electrons remaining to be stable/shared 1
1
Number of outer electrons not shared( 3-lone pairs)
6 6
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 ●● xx

●●

Cl Cl ●●
●x

xx
xx

Cl2 (diatomic molecule)

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 iii) Bromine
(

Symbol of atom/element taking part in bonding Br

Br
Number of protons/electrons 35
35
Electron configuration/structure 2:8:18:7
2:8:18:7
Number of electron in outer energy level 7
7
Number of electrons remaining to be stable/shared 1
1
Number of outer electrons not shared( 3-lone pairs)
6 6
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 ●● xx

●●

Br Br ●●
●x

xx
xx

Br2 (diatomic molecule)

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 (iv) Iodine
Symbol of atom/element taking part in bonding I
I
Number of protons/electrons 53
53
Electron configuration/structure 2:8:18:18:7
2:8:18:18:7
Number of electron in outer energy level 7
7
Number of electrons remaining to be stable/shared 1
1
Number of outer electrons not shared( 3-lone pairs)
6 6
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 ●● xx

●●

I I
●●
●x

xx
xx

I2 (diatomic molecule)
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 c) Oxygen molecule is made up of
two atoms sharing each two outer
energy level electrons to have a
stable octet…
O2 (diatomic molecule)

●● xx

21
●● O O
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●● xx
xx
 d) Nitrogen and phosphorus molecule is
made up of two atoms sharing each three
outer energy level electrons to have a stable
octet ●
N2 (diatomic molecule)

N N
●
o xx
●●
x
x
x
P2 (diatomic molecule)

22
●●
P ● x● x●x
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P xx
 e) Water molecule is made up of hydrogen
and oxygen.
Hydrogen requires to share one electron
with oxygen to be stab
le/attain duplet.
Oxygen requires to share two electrons to
be stable/attain octet.
Two hydrogen atoms share with one
oxygen atom for both to be stable as shown
below;
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 2 lone pair of electrons

●●

●● O ●x
H
●x

H 2 bonded pair of
electrons

H2O (triatomic molecule)

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 Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in
bonding O H
Number of protons/electrons 8
1
Electron configuration/structure
2:6 1
Number of electron in outer energy level
6 1
Number of electrons remaining to be
stable/shared 2 1
Number of electrons not shared( 2-Oxygen lone
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pairs) 4
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0
 f) Ammonia molecule is made up of Hydrogen
and Nitrogen.
Hydrogen requires to share one electron with
Nitrogen to be stable/attain duplet.
Nitrogen requires to share three electrons to be
stable/attain octet.
Three hydrogen atoms share with one nitrogen
atom for both to be stable.

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 1 lone pair of electrons

●●

H ●x N ●x
H
●x

H 3 bonded pair of
electrons

NH3 (tetratomic molecule)

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 Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding
N H
Number of protons/electrons 7
1
Electron configuration/structure 2:5
1:
Number of electron in outer energy level
5 1
Number of electrons remaining to be stable/shared
3 1
Number of electrons not shared( 1-Nitrogen lone pairs)
2 0
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 g)Carbon(IV) oxide molecule is made up
of carbon and oxygen.
Carbon requires to share four electrons
with oxygen to be stable/attain octet.
Oxygen requires to share two electrons to
be stable/attain octet.
Two oxygen atoms share with one carbon
atom for both to be stable as shown below;

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 lone pairs of electrons in oxygen atom

●●
●●

O ●x
●x C ●x
●x O ●●
●●

4 bonded pairs of
electrons

CO2 (triatomic molecule)

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 h) Methane molecule is made up of
hydrogen and carbon.
Hydrogen requires sharing one electron
with carbon to be stable/attain duplet.
Carbon requires sharing four electrons to
be stable/attain octet.
Four hydrogen atoms share with one
carbon atom for both to be stable as shown
below;

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 H
x●

H C x●
x●
H
x●

H 4 bonded pair of
electrons
No lone pair of
electrons
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CH4 (polyatomic molecule)
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 Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in
bonding C H
Number of protons/electrons 6
1
Electron configuration/structure 2:4
1
Number of electron in outer energy level
4 1
Number of electrons remaining to be
stable/shared 4 1
Number of electrons not shared ( No lone pairs)
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0
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0
 Tetra chloromethane molecule is made up
of chlorine and carbon.
Chlorine requires sharing one electron with
carbon to be stable/attain octet.
Carbon requires sharing four electrons to
be stable/attain octet.
Four chlorine atoms share with one carbon
atom for both to be stable.

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 xx
xx
Cl
x●
xx

xx xx

xx
Cl x● C x●
Cl xx

xx
xx x●

xx
Cl
4 bonded pair of
xx

electrons
xx

12 lone pairs of
electrons in
CCl4 (polyatomic molecule) chlorine atoms
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 Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding
C Cl
Number of protons/electrons 6
17
Electron configuration/structure
2:4 2:8:7
Number of electron in outer energy level
4 7
Number of electrons remaining to be
stable/shared 4 1
3-lone pairs from each Chlorine atom(24
electrons)
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 ) Ethane molecule is made up of six hydrogen
j

and two carbon atoms.

Hydrogen requires to share one electron with
carbon to be stable/attain duplet.
Carbon requires to share four electrons to be
stable/attain octet.
Three hydrogen atoms share with one carbon
atom while another three hydrogen atoms share
with a different carbon atom.
The two carbon atoms bond by sharing a pair of
the remaining electrons as shown below;
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 H
●x
H
●x

H C ●x
●●
C ●x
H
●x ●x

H H
7 bonded pair of electrons
No lone pair of electrons

C2H6 (polyatomic molecule)

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 Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding
C H
Number of protons/electrons 6
1
Electron configuration/structure
2:4 1
Number of electron in outer energy level
4 1
Number of electrons remaining to be
stable/shared 4 1
Number of electrons not shared( No lone pairs)
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0
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0
 k) Ethene molecule is made up of four hydrogen
and two carbon atoms.
Hydrogen requires to share one electron with
carbon to be stable/attain duplet.
Carbon requires to share four electrons to be
stable/attain octet.
Two hydrogen atoms share with one carbon
atom while another two hydrogen atoms share
with a different carbon atom.
The two carbon atoms bond by sharing two
pairs of the remaining electrons
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 H
●x
H
●x

C ●● ●●
C
●x ●x

H H
6 bonded pair of electrons
No lone pair of electrons

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C H (polyatomic molecule)
2 4
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 ) Ethyne molecule is made up of two hydrogen
l

and two carbon atoms.

Hydrogen requires to share one electron with
carbon to be stable/attain duplet.
Carbon requires to share four electrons to be
stable/attain octet.
One hydrogen atoms share with one carbon
atom while another hydrogen atoms share with
a different carbon atom.
The two carbon atoms bond by sharing three
pairs of the remaining electrons
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 H C C
●●
●x
●●
●●
●x
H
5 bonded pair of electrons
No lone pair of electrons

C2 H2 (polyatomic molecule)
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 By convention (as a rule), a
(i) single covalent bond made up of two
shared( a pair) electrons is represented by
a dash
(ii) double covalent bond made up of
four shared( two pairs) electrons is
represented by a double dash
(iii) triple covalent bond made up of six
shared( three pairs) electrons is
represented by a triple dash
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 The representation below show some of the molecules covered
in (a) to (k) above:
•Hydrogen molecule(H2) H--H
•Fluorine molecule(F2) F—F
•Chlorine molecule(Cl2) Cl—Cl
•Bromine molecule(Br2) Br—Br
•Iodine molecule(I2) I—I
•Oxygen molecule(O2) O=O
•Nitrogen molecule(N2) N= N
•Phosphorus molecule(P2) P = P
•Water molecule (H2O)
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 •

jAmmonia molecule(NH3) H--N--H

H

k)Carbon(IV) oxide molecule(CO2) O==C==O

H
l)Methane molecule(CH4) H--C--H
H

Cl
m)Tetrachloromethane molecule(CCl4 Cl--C--Cl
Cl
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 H H
n)Ethane molecule(C2H6) H--C—C--H
H H
p)Ethene molecule(C2H4)
H-C==C-H
H H

q)Ethyne molecule(C2H6) H-C — C-H

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 Dative /coordinate bond
A dative/coordinate bond is a covalent
bond formed when a lone pair of electrons is
donated then shared to an electron-deficient
species/ion/atom.
During dative/coordinate bonding, all the shared
pair of electrons are donated by one of the
combining/bonding species/ ion/atom.
Like covalent bonding, coordinate /dative bond
is mainly formed by non-metals.

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 Illustration of coordinate /dative bond

a)Ammonium ion(NH4+)

The ammonium ion is made up of ammonia (NH3)

molecule and hydrogen (H+) ion.
(H+) ion has no electrons.
NH3 is made up of covalent bonding from Nitrogen
and Hydrogen.
One lone pair of electrons is present in Nitrogen
atom after the bonding.
This lone pair is donated and shared with the
electron-deficient H+ ion
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 Dative/cordinate bond

H +
●●

H x●
N x●
H
x●

H
Covalent bond
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 b)Phosphine ion (PH4+)
The Phosphine ion is made up of phosphine(PH 3)
molecule and hydrogen (H+) ion.
(H+) ion has no electrons.
PH3 is made up of covalent bonding from
Phosphorus and Hydrogen.
One lone pair of electrons is present in
Phosphorus atom.
After the bonding this lone pair is donated and
shared with the electron-deficient H+ ion
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 Dative/cordinate bond

H +
●●

H x●
P x●
H
x●

H
Covalent bond
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 c) Hydroxonium (H3O+) ion
The hydroxonium ion is made up of water
(H2O) molecule and hydrogen (H+) ion.
(H+) ion has no electrons.
The H2O molecule is made up of covalent
bonding from Oxygen and Hydrogen.
One lone pair of electrons out of the two
present in Oxygen atom after the bonding is
donated and shared with the electron-deficient
H+ ion
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 Dative/cordinate bond

H +
●●

●●
O x●
H
x●

H
Covalent bond
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 d) Carbon (II) oxide (CO)

Carbon (II) oxide is made up of carbon

and Oxygen atoms sharing each two
outer electron and not sharing each two
electrons.
Oxygen with an extra lone pair of
electrons donates and share with the
carbon atom for both to be stable.
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 lone pairs of electrons in carbon and oxygen
atoms

●●
C x●
x●
xx
O xx

6 bonded pairs of
electrons
2covalent bonds
1 dative bond
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 e) Aluminium (III) chloride (AlCl3/Al2Cl6)
Aluminium (III) chloride is made up of aluminium and
chlorine.
One aluminium atom shares its outer electrons with
three separate chlorine atoms.
All chlorine atoms attain stable octet but aluminium
does not.
Another molecule of aluminium chloride shares its
chlorine lone pair of electrons with the aluminium
atom for both to be stable.
This type of bond exists only in vapour phase after
aluminium chloride sublimes.
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 xx xx xx xx xx xx
Cl Cl Cl
xx
xx ●x x● ●x xx
Al Al
●x xx x● ●x
xx xx

Cl Cl Cl
xx xx xx xx xx xx

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 A dative/coordinate bond is by
convention represented by an arrow
(→) heading from the donor of the
shared pair of electrons.

Below is the representation of

molecules in some of the above
examples;

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 d)Carbon(II) oxide
O→C

d) Aluminium(III)chloride
Cl Cl Cl

Al Al

Cl Cl Cl
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 a)
Ammonium ion. H
H− N→H
H

b)Phosphine ion H
H− P→H
H

c)Hydroxonium H− O→H
H
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 (ii)IONIC/ELECTROVALENT BOND
An ionic/electrovalent bond is extreme of a covalent
bond.
During ionic/electrovalent bonding there is complete
transfer of valence electrons to one electronegative
atom from an electropositive atom.
All metals are electropositive and easily/readily
donate/lose their valence electrons.
All non-metals are electronegative and easily/readily
gain/acquire extra electrons
Ionic/electrovalent bonding therefore mainly involves
transfer of electrons from metal/metallic radical to non-
metallic radical.
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 When an electropositive atom donates /loses the valence
electrons, it forms a positively charged cation to attain
stable octet/duplet.
When an electronegative atom gains /acquires extra
valence electrons, it forms a negatively charged anion to
attain stable octet/duplet.
The electrostatic attraction force between the stable
positively charged cation and the stable negatively
charged anion with opposite charges constitute the ionic
bond.
Like in covalent/dative/coordinate bonding, only the
outer energy level electrons take part in the formation of
ionic/electrovalent bond
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 Like in covalent/dative/coordinate bonding,
the more electrons taking part / involved in
the formation of ionic/electrovalent bond,
the stronger the ionic /electrovalent bond.
Illustration of ionic /electrovalent bond

a)Sodium chloride(NaCl)
Sodium chloride(NaCl) is formed when a sodium
atom donate its outer valence electrons to chlorine
atom for both to attain stable octet:
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 Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding
Na Cl
Number of protons/electrons 11
17
Electron configuration/structure 2:8:1
2:8:7
Number of electron in outer energy level
11 7
Number of electrons donated and gained to be
stable 1 1
New electron configuration/structure
2:8: 2:8:
Symbol of cation/anion after bonding
65 Na +
Cl
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-
 Gained/acquired electron

+ x●
-
Na
Cl
xx xx

xx

2:8:8
2:8:
Stable octet Stable octet
Electrostatic attraction between Na + and Cl-
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constitute the ionic/ electrovalent bond
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 b)Magnesium chloride(MgCl2)
Magnesium chloride (MgCl2) is formed
when a magnesium atom donate its two
outer valence electrons to chlorine
atoms.
Two chlorine atoms are required to
gain each one electron.
All the ions (cations and anions) attain
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stable octet:
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 Number of protons/electrons 12
17
Electron configuration/structure
2:8:2 2:8:7
Number of electron in outer energy level 2
7
Number of electrons donated and gained to be
stable 2 1
New electron configuration/structure
2:8: 2:8:
Symbol of cation/anion after bonding
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Mg 2+
Cl
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-
 Gained/acquired electrons

-
2+
x●
-
x●

Mg
Cl Cl
xx xx
xx xx

xx

xx

2:8:8
2:8:8 2:8:
Stable octet Stable octet
Stable octet
Electrostatic attraction between Mg 2+ and two Cl-
69 constitute the ionic/ electrovalent bond
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 c)Lithium oxide(Li2O)
Lithium oxide(Li2O)is formed when a
Lithium atom donate its outer valence
electrons to Oxygen atom. Two
Lithium atoms are required to
donate/lose each one electron and
attain stable duplet. Oxygen atom
acquires the two electrons and attain
stable octet:
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 Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding Li
O
Number of protons/electrons 3 8
Electron configuration/structure 2:1
2:6
Number of electron in outer energy level 1
6
Number of electrons donated and gained to be stable 1
2
New electron configuration/structure 2:
2:8:
Symbol of cation/anion after bonding Li+
O2-
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 Gained/acquired electrons

+
2- +
●●

Li xx
Oxx
xx Li

2: 2:8:8 2:
Stable duplet Stable octet Stable duplet

Electrostatic attraction between two Li + and O2-

72 constitute the ionic/ electrovalent bond
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e)Calcium oxide(CaO)
Calcium oxide(CaO)is formed when a Calcium atom donate its two
outer valence electrons to Oxygen atom.
Both attain stable octet:

Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding

Ca O
Number of protons/electrons 20 8
Electron configuration/structure 2:8:8:2
2:6
Number of electron in outer energy level
2 6
Number of electrons donated and gained to be stable
2 2
New electron configuration/structure 2:8:8:
2:8:
Symbol of cation/anion after bonding Ca2+
O2-
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 Gained/acquired electrons

2+ 2-
●●

Ca xx
O xx
xx

2:8:
2:8:8
Stable octet Stable octet
Electrostatic attraction between Ca 2+ and O2-
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constitute the ionic/ electrovalent bond
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Some compounds can be formed from ionic/electrovalent, covalent
and dative/coordinate bonding within their atoms/molecules:
a)Formation of ammonium chloride:

Ammonium chloride is formed from the reaction of ammonia gas

and hydrogen chloride gas.
Both ammonia and hydrogen chloride gas are formed from covalent
bonding.
During the reaction of ammonia and hydrogen chloride gas to form
Ammonium chloride;
-ammonia forms a dative/coordinate bond with electron
deficient H+ ion from Hydrogen chloride to form ammonium
ion(NH4+)ion.
-the chloride ion Cl- and ammonium ion(NH4+)ion bond through
ionic / electrovalent bond from the electrostatic attraction
between
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the opposite/unlike charges.
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 Covalent bonds in ammonia and hydrogen chloride molecule

xx ●●

H xx N xx H H x● Cl ● ●
xx xx
H
Ionic bond between ammonium and chloride ions
Dative/ coordinate bonds

H + -
xx ●●

H●x N x● H x● Cl ●●
●x ●●

H
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 b) Dissolution/dissolving of hydrogen chloride:
Hydrogen chloride is formed when hydrogen and chlorine atoms
form a covalent bond.
Water is formed when hydrogen and Oxygen atoms also form a
covalent bond.
During the reaction of ammonia and hydrogen chloride gas to form
Ammonium chloride;
-ammonia forms a dative/coordinate bond with electron
deficient H+ ion from Hydrogen chloride to form ammonium
ion(NH4+)ion.
-the chloride ion Cl- and ammonium ion(NH4+)ion bond
through ionic /electrovalent bond from the electrostatic attraction
between the opposite/unlike charges.

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 Covalent bonds in water and hydrogen chloride molecule
xx
xx

O
xx x●H Ionic bond H ● x Cl xx

x● between xx
H hydroxonium
and chloride
Dative/ coordinate bonds ions
in ammonium ion
H + -
xx xx

xx
O x● H ●x Cl xx
x● xx

H
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c)Dissolution/dissolving of ammonia gas:
Ammmonia gas is formed when hydrogen and Nitrogen
atoms form a covalent bond.
Water is formed when hydrogen and Oxygen atoms also
form a covalent bond.
When Ammonia gas is dissolved in water;
-ammonia forms a dative/coordinate bond with electron
deficient H+ ion from a water molecule to form
ammonium ion(NH4+)ion
-the hydroxide ion OH- and ammonium ion(NH4+)ion
bond through ionic /electrovalent bond from the
electrostatic attraction between the opposite/unlike
79charges.
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 Covalent bonds in ammonia and water molecule

xx xx

H x●N ●x H H ●x O xx

●x ●x
H H
Ionic bond between ammonium and hydroxide ions
Dative/ coordinate bonds

H + -
xx xx

H x● N ●x H ●x O xx
x● ●x

H H
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 (iii)METALLIC BOND
A metallic bond is formed when metallic atoms
delocalize their outer electrons inorder to be
stable.
Metals delocalize their outer electrons to form
positively charged cation.
The electrostatic attraction force between the
metallic cation and the negatively charged
electrons constitute the metallic bond.
The more delocalized electrons the stronger the
metallic bond.
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 Illustration of metallic bond

a) Sodium (Na) is made of one valence electron.

The electron is donated to form Na+ ion.
The electron is delocalized /free within many sodium ions.
Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding
Na Na Na
Number of protons/electrons
11 11 11
Electron configuration/structure
2:8:1 2:8:1 2:8:1
Number of electron in outer energy level
1 1 1
Number of electrons delocalized/free within
1 1 1
New electron configuration/structure
2:8: 2:8: 2:8:
Symbol of cation after metallic bonding
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Na +
Na +
[email protected] Na +
 Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na +Na +
e e e e e e e e e
e
Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na +Na +
b) Aluminium (Al) atom is made of three
valence electron.
The three electrons are donated to form Al3+
ion.
The electrons are delocalized /free within
many aluminium ions.

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 Symbol of atoms/elements taking part in bonding
Al Al Al
Number of protons/electrons
13 13 13
Electron configuration/structure
2:8:3 2:8:3 2:8:3
Number of electron in outer energy level
3 3 3
Number of electrons delocalized/free within
3 3 3
New electron configuration/structure
2:8: 2:8: 2:8:
Symbol of cation after metallic bonding
Al3+ Al3+ Al3+

Al 3+ Al 3+ Al 3+ Al 3+ Al 3+
e e e e e e e e e
e
Al 3+ Al 3+Al 3+ Al 3+ Al 3+ Al 3+
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 B.CHEMICAL STRUCTURE
Chemical structure is the
pattern/arrangement of atoms after they
have bonded.
There are two main types of structures:
(i)simple molecular structure
(ii) giant structures

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 (i)Simple molecular structure
Simple molecular structure is the pattern formed
after atoms of non-metals have covalently
bonded to form simple molecules.
Molecules are made of atoms joined together by
weak intermolecular forces called Van-der-waals
forces.
The Van-der-waals forces hold the molecules
together while the covalent bonds hold the atoms
in the molecule.
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 Illustration of simple molecular structure
a)Hydrogen molecule(H2)
Hydrogen gas is made up of strong covalent
bonds/intramolecular forces between each
hydrogen atom making the molecule.
Each molecule is joined to another by weak
Van-der-waals forces/ intermolecular forces

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 :::H H:::::H H:::: H H
:: :: :: :: ::: ::
:::H H:::::H H::::H H
Strong (intramolecular forces) Weak (intermolecular)
covalent bonds van-der-waals forces
b)Oxygen molecule(O2)
Oxygen gas is made up of strong covalent
bonds/intramolecular forces between each Oxygen atom
making the molecule. Each molecule is joined to another
by weak Van-der-waals forces/ intermolecular forces.
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 Strong intramolecular forces/covalent bond

O=O:::: O=O:::: O=O:::

: : : : : : : : : : : weak intermolecular
O=O:::: O=O:::: O=O::: /van-der-waals forces

c)Iodine molecule(I2)
Iodine solid crystals are made up of strong covalent
bonds/intramolecular forces between each iodine atom
making the molecule.
Each molecule is joined to another by weak Van-der-
waals forces/ intermolecular forces.
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 Strong intramolecular forces/covalent bond

I--- I:::: I --- I:::: I --- I

:: :: :: :: :: weak intermolecular
I --- I:::: I --- I:::: I --- I /van-der-waals forces
d)Carbon(IV) oxide molecule(CO2)
Carbon(IV) oxide gas molecule is made up of strong
covalent bonds/intramolecular forces between each
Carbon and oxygen atoms making the molecule.
Each molecule is joined to another by weak Van-der-
waals forces/ intermolecular forces.

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 Strong intramolecular forces/covalent bond

O=C=O O=C=O O=C=O

:: :: :: weak intermolecular
O=C=O O=C=O O=C=O forces/van-der-waals
forces
 The following are the main characteristic properties of
simple molecular structured compounds:
a)State
Most simple molecular substances are gases, liquid or
liquids or solid that sublimes or has low boiling/melting
points at room temperature (25oC) and pressure
(atmospheric pressure).
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 Examples of simple molecular substances
include:
-all gases;e.g.oxygen,nitrogen, nitrogen
-Petroleum fractions e.g Petrol, paraffin, diesel, wax,
-Solid non-metals eg Sulphur,
-Water
b) Low melting/boiling points
Melting is the process of weakening the intermolecular/
van-der-waal forces/ of attraction between the molecules
that holding the substance/compound.

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 Note;
(i)Melting and boiling does not involve weakening/breaking the
strong intramolecular force/covalent bonds holding the atoms in
the molecule.
(ii) Melting and boiling points increase with increase in atomic
radius/size of the atoms making the molecule as the
intermolecular forces / van-der-waal forces of attraction between
the molecules increase. e.g.
Iodine has a higher melting/boiling point than chlorine because it
has a higher /bigger atomic radius/size than chlorine.
This make the molecule to have stronger intermolecular force/
van-der-waal forces of attraction between the molecules than
chlorine.
Iodine is hence a solid and chlorine is a gas.
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 (c)Insoluble in water/soluble in organic solvents
Polar substances dissolve in polar solvents.
Water is a polar solvent.
Molecular substances do not thus dissolve in water because they
are non-polar.
They dissolve in non-polar solvents like methylbenzene, benzene,
tetrachloromethane or propanone.
d)Poor conductors of heat and electricity
Substances with free mobile ions or free mobile/delocalized
electrons conduct electricity.
Molecular substances are poor conductors of heat/electricity
because their molecules have no free mobile ions/electrons.
This makes them very good insulators.
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 Hydrogen bonds
A hydrogen bond is an intermolecular force of attraction
in which a very electronegative atom in a compound/
molecule attracts hydrogen atom of a second molecule
due to polarization of the covalent bond in the first
molecule.
The most electronegative elements are Fluorine, Oxygen
and Nitrogen.
Molecular compounds made up of these elements usually
have hydrogen bonds.
Hydrogen bonds are stronger than van-der-waals forces
but weaker than covalent bonds.
Molecular compounds with hydrogen bonds thus have higher
melting/boiling points than those with van-der-waals forces.
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 Illustration of Hydrogen bonding
a)Water molecule
During formation of covalent bond, the oxygen
atom attract/pull the shared electrons more to
itself than to Hydrogen.
This creates partial negative charges(δ-)in
Oxygen and partial positive charges(δ+)in
Hydrogen.

Two molecules attract each other at the partial

charges through Hydrogen bonding.
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97 [email protected]
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 The hydrogen bonding in water makes it;
(i)a liquid with higher boiling and melting point than
simple molecular substances with higher molecular
mass; e.g. Hydrogen sulphide as in the table below;

Influence of H-bond in water (H2O) in comparison to H2S

Substance Water/ H2O Hydrogen sulphide/

H2 S
Relative molecular mass 18 34

Melting point(oC) 0 -85

Boiling point(oC) 100 -60

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 (ii)have higher volume in solid (ice) than liquid (water) and thus
ice is less dense than water.
Ice therefore floats above liquid water.

b)Ethanol molecule
Like in water, the oxygen atom attracts/pulls the shared electrons
in the covalent bond more to itself than Hydrogen.
This creates a partial negative charge (δ-) on oxygen and partial
positive charge(δ+) on hydrogen.
Two ethanol molecules attract each other at the partial charges
through Hydrogen bonding forming a dimmer.
A dimmer is a molecule formed when two molecules join
together as below:

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 Hydrogen bonds covalent bonds

R1 O δ-……….…H δ + O δ-

H δ+ R2

R1 and R2 are extensions of the molecule.

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 For ethanol it is made up of CH3CH2 – to
make the structure:
Hydrogen bond covalent bonds
CH3CH2 O δ-….…H δ+ O δ-

H δ+
CH2CH3

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 b)Ethanoic acid molecule
Like in water and ethanol above, the oxygen
atom attracts/pulls the shared electrons in the
covalent bond in ethanoic acid more to itself
than Hydrogen.
This creates a partial negative charge (δ-)on
oxygen and partial positive charge(δ+) on
hydrogen.
Two ethanoic acid molecules attract each other at
the partial charges through Hydrogen-bonding
forming a dimer.
Ethanoic acid like ethanol exists also as a dimer.
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 Hydrogen bonds covalent bonds

R1 C O δ-…….….…H δ+ O δ-

O δ- H δ+……..….O δ- C R2

R1 and 2 are extensions of the molecule.

For ethanoic acid the extension is made up of
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3 – to make the structure;
 For ethanoic acid the extension is made up of
CH3 – to make the structure;
Hydrogen bonds covalent bonds

CH3 C O δ-…………… H δ+ O δ-
 

O δ- H δ+…………O δ- C CH3
Ethanoic acid has a higher melting/boiling point than
ethanol .This is because ethanoic acid has two/more
hydrogen bond than ethanol.
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 ii) Giant structure
This is the pattern formed after substances
/atoms /ions bond to form a long chain network.
Giant structures therefore extend in all directions
to form a pattern that continues repeating itself.
There are three main giant structures.
a)giant covalent/atomic structure
b)giant ionic structure
c)giant metallic structure

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 a) giant covalent/atomic structure
Giant covalent/atomic structure is the pattern formed
after atoms have covalently bonded to form long chain
pattern consisting of indefinite number of atoms
covalently bonded together.
The strong covalent bonds hold all the atoms together to
form a very well packed structure.
Examples of substances with giant covalent
/atomic structure include:
(i) carbon-diamond
(ii) carbon-graphite
(iii)silicon
(iv) silicon(IV) oxide/sand
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 Carbon-graphite and carbon-diamond are allotropes of
carbon.
Allotropy is the existence of an element in more than one
stable physical form at the same temperature and
pressure.

Allotropes are atoms of the same element existing in

more than one stable physical form at the same
temperature and pressure.

Other elements that exhibit/show allotropy include

-Sulphur as monoclinic sulphur and rhombic sulphur
-Phosphorus as white phosphorus and red phosphorus
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 The structure of carbon-diamond
Carbon has four valence electrons. The four valence electrons are
used to form covalent bonds.
.
During the formation of diamond, one carbon atom covalently bond
with four other carbon atoms.
Valence electrons
c
x ●x

c c ●x c
C
●x
x x
●x
x c
c
c c c
Covalent bonds
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 After the bonding, the atoms rearrange to form a regular
tetrahedral in which one carbon is in the centre while four
are at the apex/corners.
C
 
 
  C

C C
   C
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111 [email protected]
 This pattern repeats itself to form a long
chain number of atoms covalently bonded
together indefinitely.
The pattern is therefore called giant
tetrahedral structure.
It extends in all directions where one atom
of carbon is always a centre of four others
at the apex/corner of a regular tetrahedral.

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113 [email protected]
 The giant tetrahedral structure of carbon diamond is a
very closely packed pattern /structure such that heat
transfer by conduction is possible.
This makes carbon diamond a good thermal conductor.
c) Poor conductor of electricity.
Carbon-diamond has no free/delocalized electrons
within its structure and thus do not conduct electricity.
d) Insoluble in water.
Carbon-diamond is insoluble in water because it is non-
polar and do not bond with water molecules.

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 The giant tetrahedral structure of carbon-diamond is very
well/closely packed and joined/bonded together by strong covalent
bond.
This makes carbon-diamond to have the following properties:
a) High melting/boiling point.
The giant tetrahedral structure is very well packed and joined
together by strong covalent bonds requiring a lot of energy/heat
to weaken for the element to melt and break for the element to
boil.
b) High density.
Carbon diamond is the hardest known natural substance.
This is because the giant tetrahedral structure is a very well
packed pattern/structure and joined together by strong covalent
bonds.
This makes Carbon diamond be used to make drill for drilling
boreholes/oil wells and cutting metals
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 e) Is abrasive/Rough.
The edges of the closely well packed
pattern/structure of Carbon-diamond make its
surface rough/abrasive and thus able to smoothen
/cut metals and glass.
f) Have characteristic luster.
Carbon-diamond has a high optical dispersion
and thus able to disperse light to different colours
.This makes Carbon-diamond one of the most
popular gemstone for making jewellery.

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 The structure of carbon-graphite
During the formation of graphite, one carbon atom covalently bond
with three other carbon atoms leaving one free/delocalized 4th
.
valence electron.
Free/delocalized 4th valence electron.

Valence electrons x
●

c c x● c
C
●x
● ●
x●
●

● c
c c c
Covalent bonds
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 After the bonding, the atoms rearrange and join
together to form a regular hexagon in which six
carbon atoms are at the apex /corners.
The regular hexagon is joined to another in
layers on the same surface by van-der-waals
forces.
Each layer extends to form a plane in all
directions.
The fourth valence electron that does not form
covalent bonding is free/mobile /delocalized
within the layers.
This structure/pattern is called giant hexagonal
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planar structure.
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119 [email protected]
 d) Soft.
Layers of giant hexagonal planar structure of carbon graphite are
held together by van-der-waals forces.
The van-der-waals forces easily break when pressed
and reform back on releasing/reducing pressure/force
thus making graphite soft.
e) Smooth and slippery.
When pressed at an angle the van-der-waals forces
easily break and slide over each other making graphite
soft and slippery.
It is thus used as a dry lubricant instead of oil.

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 The giant hexagonal planar structure of carbon-graphite is closely
packed and joined/bonded together by strong covalent bonds.
This makes carbon-graphite to have the following properties:
a) High melting/boiling point.
The giant hexagonal planar structure of carbon-graphite is well
packed and joined together by strong covalent bonds requiring a lot
of energy/heat to weaken for the element to melt and break for the
element to boil.
b) Good conductor of electricity.
Carbon-graphite has free/delocalized 4th valence electrons within
its structure and thus conducts electricity.
c) Insoluble in water.
Carbon-graphite is insoluble in water because it is non-polar and
do not bond with water molecules.
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f)Some uses of carbon-graphite.
1.As a dry lubricant-carbon graphite is smooth and slippery and
thus better lubricant than oil. Oil heat up when reducing
friction.
2. Making Lead-pencils-When pressed at an angle on paper the
van-der-waals forces easily break and slide smoothly over contrasting
background producing its characteristic black background.
3. As moderator in nuclear reactors- Carbon-graphite reduce the
rate of decay/disintegration of radioactive nuclides / atoms /isotopes.
4. As electrode in dry/wet cells/battery- carbon graphite is inert
and good conductor of electricity. Current is thus able to move from
one electrode/terminal to the other in dry and wet cells/batteries.
Carbon graphite is also very cheap.
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 b) giant ionic structure
Giant ionic structure is the pattern formed after ions have
bonded through ionic/electrovalent bonding to form a
long chain consisting of indefinite number of ions.
The strong ionic/electrovalent bond holds all the cations
and anions together to form a very well packed structure.
Substances with giant ionic structure are mainly crystals
of salts e.g. sodium chloride, Magnesium chloride,
Sodium iodide, Potassium chloride, copper (II)
sulphate(VI).

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 The structure of sodium chloride
Sodium chloride is made up of sodium (Na+) and chloride
(Cl-)ions.
Sodium (Na+) ion is formed when a sodium atom
donate /loose/donate an electron.
Chloride (Cl-) ion is formed when a chlorine atom gain
/acquire an extra electron from sodium atom.
Many Na+ and Cl- ions then rearrange such that one Na+
ion is surrounded by six Cl- ions and one Cl- ion is
surrounded by six Na+ ions.

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 The pattern formed is a giant cubic structure
where Cl- ion is sand witched between Na+ ions
and the same to Na+ ions.
This pattern forms a crystal.
A crystal is a solid form of a substance in which
particles are arranged in a definite pattern
regularly repeated in three dimensions.
The structure of sodium chloride

The giant cubic structure/crystal of sodium

chloride is as below;
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126 [email protected]
 The giant cubic structure/crystal of sodium
chloride is very well packed and joined by strong
ionic/electrovalent bonds.
This makes sodium chloride and many ionic
compounds to have the following properties:

a) Have high melting /boiling points.

The giant cubic lattice structure of sodium chloride
is very closely packed into a crystal that requires a
lot of energy/heat to weaken and melt/boil.
This applies to all crystalline ionic compounds.

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 b) Are good conductors of electricity in
molten and aqueous state but poor conductor
of electricity in solid.
Ionic compounds have fused ions in solid
crystalline state.
On heating and dissolving in water, the crystal is
broken into free mobile ions (Na+ and Cl- ions).
The free mobile ions are responsible for
conducting electricity in ionic compounds in
molten and aqueous states.

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 c)Soluble in water
Ionic compounds are polar and
dissolve in polar water molecules.
On dissolving, the crystal breaks
and the ions become free and
mobile.
They are then surrounded by water
molecules.
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 c) giant metallic structure
This is the pattern formed after metallic atoms
have bonded through metallic bond.
The pattern formed is one where the metallic
cations rearrange to form a cubic structure
The cubic structure is bound together by the free
delocalized electrons that move freely within.

The more delocalized electrons, the stronger the

metallic bond.
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 The structure of sodium and aluminium.
Sodium has one valence electrons.
Aluminium has three valence electrons.
After delocalizing the valence electrons ,the metal
cations (Na+ and Al3+) rearrange to the apex
/corners of a regular cube that extend in all
directions.
The delocalized electrons remain free and
mobile.

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 The giant cubic structure makes metals to have the
following properties:
a) Have high melting/boiling point
The giant cubic structure is very well packed and
joined/bonded together by the free delocalized electrons.
The more delocalized electrons the higher the
melting/boiling point.
The larger/bigger the metallic cation ,the weaker the
packing of the cations and thus the lower the
melting/boiling point. e.g.
Sodium and potassium have both one valence
delocalized electron.

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Atomic radius of potassium is larger/bigger than that of
sodium and hence less well packed in its metallic structure.
Sodium has therefore a higher melting/boiling point than
potassium.
(ii) Sodium has one delocalized electron. Aluminium has
three delocalized electrons.
Atomic radius of sodium is larger/bigger than that of
aluminium and hence less well packed in its metallic
structure.
Aluminium has thus a higher melting/boiling point than
sodium because of the smaller well packed metallic
(Al3+)ions and bonded/joined by more/three delocalized
electrons.
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 The table below shows the comparative
melting/boiling points of some metals:

Metal Electronic Atomic Melting Boiling

structure radius(nM) point(oC) point(oC)

Sodium 2:8:1 0.155 98 890

Potassium 2:8:8:1 0.203 64 774

Magnesium 2:8:2 0.136 651 1110

Aluminium 2:8:3 0.125 1083 2382

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 b) Good electrical and thermal conductor/electricity.
All metals are good conductors of heat and electricity
including Mercury which is a liquid.
The mobile delocalized electrons are free within the
giant metallic structure to move from one end to the
other transmitting heat/electric current.
The more delocalized electrons the better the
thermal/electrical conductivity.
High temperatures/heating lowers the thermal/electrical
conductivity of metals because the delocalized electrons
vibrate and move randomly/haphazzardly hindering
smooth transfer of heat/electricity
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 From the table above:
Compare the electrical conductivity of;
(i)Magnesium and sodium;
Magnesium is a better conductor than sodium.
Magnesium has more/two delocalized electrons than sodium.
The more delocalized electrons the better the electrical
conductor.
(ii)Potassium and sodium
Potassium is a better conductor than sodium.
Potassium has bigger/larger atomic radius than sodium.
The delocalized electrons are less attracted to the nucleus of the
atom and thus more free /mobile and thus better the electrical
conductor.

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 d) Shiny metallic-lustre
All metals have a shiny grey metallic luster
except copper which is brown.
When exposed to sunlight, the delocalized
electrons gain energy, they vibrate on the metal
surface scattering light to appear shiny.
With time, most metals corrode and are covered
by a layer of the metal oxide.
The delocalized electrons are unable to gain and
scatter light and the metal surface
tarnishes/become dull.

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 c) Insoluble in water
All metals are insoluble in water because they are non
polar and thus do not bond with water.
Metals higher in the reactivity / electrochemical series
like;
Potassium, sodium, Lithium and Calcium reacts with
cold water producing hydrogen gas and forming an
alkaline solution of their hydroxides. i.e
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) ->2KOH(aq)+H2(g)(explosive)
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) ->2NaOH(aq)+H2(g)
2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) ->2LiOH(aq)+H2(g)
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) -> Ca(OH)2(aq)+ H2(g)
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 Heavy metal like Magnesium, Aluminium, Iron, Zinc
and Lead react with steam/water vapour to produce
hydrogen gas and form the corresponding oxide.
Mg(s) + H2O(g) -> MgO(s) + H2(g)
Fe(s) + H2O(g) ->FeO(s) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + H2O(g) -> ZnO(s) + H2(g)
Pb(s) + H2O(g) -> PbO(s) + H2(g)
2Al(s)+ 3H2O(g) -> Al2O3(s) + 3H2(g)
Metals lower in the reactivity/electrochemical series
than hydrogen like; copper, Mercury, Gold Silver and
Platinum do not react with water/vapour.
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 e) Ductile and malleable
All metals are malleable (can be made into thin sheet)
and ductile (can be made into wire.
When beaten/hit/pressed lengthwise the metallic cations
extend and is bound /bonded by the free/mobile electrons
to form a sheet.
When beaten/hit/pressed lengthwise and bredthwise the
metallic cations extend and is bound /bonded by the
free/mobile electrons to form a wire/thin strip.
f) Have high tensile strength
Metals are not brittle.
The free delocalized electrons bind the metal together
when it is bent /coiled at any angle.
The metal thus withstand stress/coiling
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 Summary of Bonding and structure
Simple molecular Giant Giant ionic Giant metallic
structure covalent /atomic structure structure
structure
(i)Examples I2,S8,HCl,O2,CH4 Graphite,diamon NaCl, KCl, Na,Fe,Cr,Hg,K
d CaO,CuSO4
Si,SiO2
Constituent molecules Atoms Ions Atoms
particles (of non-metals) (cation and (of metals)
making anions)
structure

Type of Non-metal Group IV non- Metal-non Metallic

substance element/non-metal metals and some metal compounds
molecule/non-metal of their oxides compounds(co Metallic
compound(electrone mpounds of elements (with
gative elements) electropositive low
and electonegativity
electronegative and high
compounds) electropositivity)

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 -Strong Atoms are Electrostati EEElectrosta
Bonding covalent bonds linked c attraction tic
in solid hold atoms through the of cations Electrostatic
state together within whole and anions attraction of
separate structure by link the outer mobile
molecules very strong whole electrons for
(intramolecular covalent structure positive
forces) bonds. through nuclei binds
-Weak van-der- strong atoms
waals forces ionic bond. together
hold separate though
molecules metallic
together bond
(intermolecular
forces)

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 Properties -Highly volatile -Non volatile -Non volatile
(i) with low with very high with very -Non volatile
Volatility melting/boiling melting/boiling high with very high
point points melting/boili melting/boiling
-Low latent heat -Low latent ng points points
of heat of fusion / -Low latent -Low latent
fusion/vaporizatio vaporization heat of fusion heat of fusion /
n / vaporization
vaporization

(ii) State Usually solids solids

at room gases,volatile Solids except
temperatu liquids or solids Mercury(liquid
re that sublimes )
/pressure

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 (iii) Hardness Soft and brittle(low tensile Hard and brittle(low Hard and Hard, malleable,
strength) tensile strength) brittle(low tensile ductile and have high
strength) tensile strength
(iv) Thermal Poor thermal and electrical Poor thermal and Poor thermal and Good thermal and
/electrical conductor when solid electrical conductor electrical conductor electrical conductor in
conductivity ,liquid or aqueous when solid ,liquid or when solid. Good solid and
solutions but some aqueous solutions but thermal and liquid/molten states
dissolve and react to form -Carbon-graphite is a electrical conductor due to the free
electrolytes e.g. good electrical in liquid/molten mobile /delocalized
Hydrogen chloride and conductor while and aqueous states electrons
ammonia gases. -Carbon-diamond is a when the ions are
good thermal not fused
conductor.

(v) Solubility Insoluble in polar solvents Insoluble in all Soluble in polar Insoluble in
e.g. Water solvents solvents e.g. Water polar/non-polar
Soluble in non-polar Insoluble in non- colvents.
solvents e.g. polar solvents e.g. -Some react with polar
tetrachloromethane, tetrachloromethane, solvents
benzene, methylbenzene benzene, -Some metal dissolve
methylbenzene in other metals to
form alloys e.g. Brass
is formed when Zinc
dissolve in copper.

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 C. PERIODICITY OF BONDING AND STRUCTURE
The periodic table does not classify elements as metals
and non-metals.
The table arranges them in terms of atomic numbers.
However, based on structure and bonding of the elements
in the periodic table;
(i)-the top right hand corner of about twenty elements are
non-metals
(ii)-left of each non-metal is an element which shows
characteristics of both metal and non-metal
These elements are called semi-metals/metalloids.
They include Boron, silicon, Germanium, Arsenic,
and Terullium.
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(iii)-all other elements in the periodic table are metal.
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 (iv)-Hydrogen is a non-metal with metallic
characteristic/property of donating/losing outer
electron to form cation/H+ ion.
(v) –bromine is the only known natural liquid non-
metal element at room temperature and pressure.
(vi) –mercury is only known natural liquid metal
element at room temperature and pressure.
(vii) Carbon-graphite is a semi metals/metalloids.
Carbon-diamond is a pure non-metal yet both are
allotropes of carbon (same element)
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 a) Sketch of the periodic table showing
metals ,metalloid and non-metals
Metals Metalloids Non-metals
H He
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Transition metals Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra
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149 [email protected]
b)Periodicity in the physical properties of elements across period
2 and 3
Study table I and II below:
Table I(period 2)
Property Li Be B C N O F Ne
Melting 180 1280 2030 3700 -210 -219 -220 -250
point(oC) (graphite)
3550
(diamond)

Boiling 1330 2480 3930 Graphite -200 -180 -190 -245

point(oC) sublimes
4830
(diamond)

Density at 0.50 1.85 2.55 2.25 0.81 0.14 0.11 0.021

room (graphite)
temperat 3.53
ure (gcm- (diamond)
3
)
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 Type of Metal Metal Metal Metall Non- Non- Non- Non-
element oid metal metal metal metal
Chemic Giant Giant Giant Giant Simp Simpl Simp Simp
al metal metal atomi atomic/ le e le le
structu lic lic c/ covale mole molec mole mole
re Coval nt cula ula cula cula
ent or or or or
mole molec mole mole
cule/ ules cule/ cule/
N2 /O2 F2 Ne
State at Solid Solid Solid Solid gas gas gas gas
room
temper
ature

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 Electr 2:1 2:2 2:3 2:4 2:5 2:6 2:7 2:8
on
struct
ure
Valenc 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 -
y
Form Li+ Be2+ B3+ - N3- O2- F- -
ular of
ion

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 Property Li Be B C N O F Ne
Melting 180 1280 2030 3700 -210 -219 -220 -250
point(oC) (graphite)
3550
(diamond)
Boiling 1330 2480 3930 Graphite -200 -180 -190 -245
point(oC) sublimes
4830
(diamond)
Density at room 0.50 1.85 2.55 2.25 0.81 0.14 0.11 0.021
temperature (graphite)
(gcm-3) 3.53
(diamond)
Type of element Metal Metal Metal Metalloid Non-metal Non-metal Non-metal Non-metal

Chemical Giant Giant Giant atomic/ Giant atomic/ Simple Simple Simple Simple
structure metallic metallic covalent covalent molecula molecula molecula molecula
or or molecules or or
molecule/ /O2 molecule/F2 molecule/N
N2 e

State at room Solid Solid Solid Solid gas gas gas gas
temperature

Electron 2:1 2:2 2:3 2:4 2:5 2:6 2:7 2:8

structure
Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 -
Formular of ion Li+ Be2+ B3+ - N3- O2- F- -

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 Table II (period 3)
Property Na Mg Al Si P(whi S(Rhom Cl Ar
te) bic)

Melting 98 650 660 1410 44 114 -101 -189

point(oC)

Boiling 890 1120 2450 2680 280 445 -34 -186

point(oC)

Density 0.97 1.74 2.70 2.33 1.82 2.07 0.157 0.011

at room (graphit
temperat e)
ure (gcm- 3.53
3
) (diamo
nd)

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 Type of Metal Metal Metal Metall Non- Non- Non- Non-
element oid metal metal metal metal

Chemic Giant Giant Giant Giant Simp Simple Simp Simpl

al metal metal metal atomi le molecu le e
structu lic lic lic c/ mole la mole molec
re covale cula or cula ula
nt or molecu or or
mole les mole molec
cule/ /S8 cule/ ule/Ar
P4 Cl2
State at Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid gas gas
room
temper
ature

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 Electr 2:8: 2:8: 2:8: 2:8:4 2:8: 2:8:6 2:8: 2:8:8
on 1 2 3 5 7
struct
ure
Valenc 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 -
y
Form Na+ Mg2 Al3+ - P3- S2- Cl- -
ular of +

ion

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 Property Na Mg Al Si P(white) S(Rhombic) Cl Ar

Melting point(oC) 98 650 660 1410 44 114 -101 -189

Boiling point(oC) 890 1120 2450 2680 280 445 -34 -186

Density at room 0.97 1.74 2.70 2.33 1.82 2.07 0.157 0.011
temperature (gcm- (graphite)
3
) 3.53
(diamond)

Type of element Metal Metal Metal Metalloid Non-metal Non-metal Non-metal Non-metal

Chemical structure Giant metallic Giant metallic Giant Giant atomic/ Simple Simple molecula Simple Simple
metallic covalent molecula or molecules molecula molecula
or molecule/ /S8 or or molecule/Ar
P4 molecule/Cl2

State at room Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid gas gas
temperature

Electron structure 2:8:1 2:8:2 2:8:3 2:8:4 2:8:5 2:8:6 2:8:7 2:8:8

Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 -
Formular of ion Na +
Mg 2+
Al 3+
- P 3-
S 2-
Cl -
-

157 [email protected]
 From table I and II above:
1. Explain the trend in atomic radius along /across a
period in the periodic table
Observation
Atomic radius of elements in the same period decrease
successively across/along a period from left to right.
Explanation
Across/along the period from left to right there is an
increase in nuclear charge from additional number of
protons and still additional number of electrons entering
the same energy level.
Increase in nuclear charge increases the effective nuclear
attraction on the outer energy level pulling it closer to
the nucleus successively across the period .e.g.
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 (i)From the table 1and 2 above,
atomic radius of Sodium (0.157nM) is higher than that of
Magnesium(0.137nM).
This is because Magnesium has more effective nuclear attraction
on the outer energy level than Sodium hence pulls outer energy
level more nearer /closer to its nucleus than sodium.
(ii)The rate of decrease in the atomic radius become smaller as the
atom become heavier
e.g. Atomic radius of Magnesium from Sodium falls by(0.157nM-
0.137nM) =0.02
Atomic radius of Chlorine from Sulphur falls by(0.104nM-
0.099nM) =0.005
This is because gaining/adding one more proton to 11 already
present cause greater proportional change in nuclear attraction
power to Magnesium than gaining/adding one more proton to 16
already present in Sulphur to Chlorine.
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 (iii)Period 3 elements have more energy levels than
Period 2 elements.
They have therefore bigger/larger atomic radius/size
than corresponding period 2 elements in the same group.
2.Explain the trend in ionic radius along/across a
period in the periodic table
Observation
Ionic radius of elements in the same period decrease
successively across/along a period from left to right for
the first three elements then increase drastically then
slowly successively decrease.
Explanation

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 Across/along the period from left to right elements
change from electron donors/losers (reducing agents) to
electron acceptors (oxidizing agents).
(i)An atom form stable ion by either gaining/acquiring/
accepting extra electron or donating/losing outer
electrons.
(ii)Metals form stable ions by donating/losing all the
outer energy level electrons and thus also the outer
energy level .i.e.
-Sodium ion has one less energy level than sodium atom.
The ion is formed by sodium atom donating/losing (all)
the outer energy level electron and thus also the outer
energy level making the ion to have smaller ionic radius
than atom.
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 The more electrons gained/accepted/acquired the more
repulsion and the more expansion to accommodate them
and hence bigger/larger atomic radius. e.g.
Nitrogen ion has three electrons more than Nitrogen
atom.
The outer energy level expand/enlarge/increase to
accommodate the extra repelled electrons.
Nitrogen atom thus has smaller atomic radius than the
ionic radius of nitrogen ion.
(v) Ionic radius decrease from group IV onwards from
left to right.
This because the number of electrons gained to form ion
decrease across/along the period from left to right. e.g.
Phosphide ion has bigger/larger ionic radius chloride ion.
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 (iii)Ionic radius therefore decrease across/along the
period from Lithium to Boron in period 2 and from
Sodium to Aluminium in period 3.
This is because the number of electrons donated/lost
causes increased effective nuclear attraction on
remaining electrons /energy levels.
(iv)Non-metals form stable ion by
gaining/acquiring/accepting extra electron in the outer
energy level.
The extra electron/s increases the repulsion among
electrons and reduces the effective nuclear attraction on
outer energy level.
The outer energy level therefore expand/enlarge/increase
in order to accommodate the extra repelled electrons .
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 3.Explain the trend in melting and boiling point of
elements in a period in the periodic table.
Observation
The melting and boiling point of elements rise up to the
elements in Group IV (Carbon/Silicon) along /across the
period then continuously falls.
Explanation
Melting/boiling points depend on the packing of the
structure making the element and the strength of the
bond holding the atoms/molecules together.
Across/along the period (2 and 3) the structure changes
from giant metallic, giant atomic/covalent to simple
molecular.
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 (i)For metals, the number of delocalized electrons increases
across/along the period and hence stronger metallic
bond/structure thus requiring more heat/energy to weaken.
The strength of a metallic bond also depends on the atomic
radius/size.
The melting /boiling point decrease as the atomic radius/size of
metals increase due to decreased packing of larger atoms. e.g.
-The melting /boiling point of Lithium is lower than that of
Beryllium because Beryllium has two/more delocalized electrons
and hence stronger metallic structure/bond.
- The melting /boiling point of Lithium is higher than that of
Sodium because the atomic radius/size Lithium is smaller and
hence better packed and hence forms stronger metallic
structure/bond.
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 (ii)Carbon-graphite/carbon-diamond in period 2
and Silicon in period 3 form very well packed
giant atomic/covalent structures held together by
strong covalent bonds.
These elements have therefore very high
melting /boiling points.
Both Carbon-graphite/ carbon-diamond have
smaller atomic radius/size than Silicon in period 3
and thus higher melting/boiling points due to
better/closer packing of smaller atoms in their
giant atomic/covalent structures.

166 [email protected]
 (iii)Non-metals from group V along/across the
period form simple molecules joined by weak
intermolecular /van-der-waals force
. The weak intermolecular /van-der-waals force
require little energy/heat to weaken leading to
low melting/boiling points.
The strength of the intermolecular /van-der-
waals forces decrease with decrease in atomic
radius/ size lowering the melting/boiling points
along/across the period (and raising the
melting/boiling points down the group).e.g.
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 -The melting /boiling point of Nitrogen is
higher than that of Oxygen.
This is because the atomic radius/ size of
Nitrogen is higher than that of Oxygen and hence
stronger intermolecular /van-der-waals forces
between Nitrogen molecules.
-The melting /boiling point of Chlorine is
higher than that of Fluorine.
This is because the atomic radius/ size of
Chlorine is higher than that of Fluorine and
hence stronger intermolecular /van-der-waals
forces between Chlorine molecules.
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 (iii)Rhombic sulphur exists as a puckered ring of
S8atoms which are well packed.
Before melting the ring break and join to very long
chains that entangle each other causing the unusually
high melting/boiling point of Rhombic sulphur.
(iv)Both sulphur and phosphorus exists as allotropes.
Sulphur exists as Rhombic-sulphur and monoclinic-
sulphur.
Rhombic-sulphur is the stable form of sulphur at room
temperature and pressure.
Phosphorus exists as white-phosphorus and red-
phosphorus.
White-phosphorus is the stable form of at Phosphorus at
room temperature and pressure.
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 4. State and explain the trend in density of
elements in a period in the periodic table.
Observation:
Density increase upto the elements in group IV then falls
across/along the period successively
Explanation:
Density is the mass per unit volume occupied by
matter/particles/atoms/molecules of element.
(i)For metals ,the stronger metallic bond and the more
delocalized electrons ensure a very well packed giant
metallic structure that occupy less volume and thus higher
density.
The more the number of delocalized electrons along/across
the period, the higher the density. e.g.
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 (i)Aluminium has a higher density than sodium.
This is because aluminium has more /three delocalized electrons
than /one sodium thus forms a very well/better packed giant
metallic structure that occupy less volume per given
mass/density.
(ii)Carbon-graphite ,carbon-diamond and silicon in group IV
form a well packed giant atomic/covalent structure that is
continuously joined by strong covalent bonds hence occupy less
volume per given mass/density.
Carbon-graphite form a less well packed giant hexagonal planar
structure joined by Van-der-waals forces.
Its density (2.25gcm-3) is therfore less than that of Carbon-
diamond(3.53gcm-3) and silicon(2.33gcm-3).
Both diamond and silicon also have giant tetrahedral structure
that is better packed.
171 [email protected]
 Carbon-diamond has smaller atomic radius/size than silicon.
Its density is thus higher because of better packing and
subsequently higher density / harder.
Carbon-diamond is the hardest known natural substance by
having the highest density.
(iii)For non-metals, the strength of the intermolecular /van-der-
waals forces decreases with decrease in atomic radius/size
along/across the period.
This decreases the mass occupied by given volume of atoms in a
molecule from group VI onwards. e.g.
Phosphorus has a higher atomic radius/size than chlorine and
Argon and thus stronger intermolecular /van-der-waals forces
that ensure a given mass of phosphorus occupy less volume than
chlorine and neon.
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 5.State and explain the trend in thermal/electrical
conductivity of elements in a period in the periodic
table.
Observation:
Increase along/across the period from group I, II, and III
then decrease in Group IV to drastically decrease in
group V to VIII (O).
Explanation
(i)Metals have free delocalized electrons that are
responsible for thermal/electrical conductivity.
Thermal/electrical conductivity increase with increase
in number of delocalized electrons.
The thermal conductivity decrease with increase in
temperature/heating. e.g.
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 Aluminium with three delocalized electrons from each atom in its
metallic structure has the highest electrical /thermal conductivity
in period 3.
(ii)Carbon-graphite has also free 4th valency electrons that are
delocalized within its layers of giant hexagonal planar structure.
They are responsible for the electrical conductivity of graphite.
(iii)Silicon and carbon diamond do not conduct electricity but
conducts heat.
With each atom too close to each other in their very well
packed giant tetrahedral structure, heat transfer /radiate
between the atoms.
The thermal conductivity increase with increase in temperature
/heating.

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 (iv)All other non-metals are poor /non-conductor of heat
and electricity.
They are made of molecules with no free /mobile
delocalized electrons in their structure.

b)Periodicity of the oxides of elements along/across

period 3
The table below summarizes some properties of the
oxides of elements in period 3 of the periodic table.
Formular of Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P 2O 5 SO2 Cl2O7
oxide/ P 4O 6 SO3 Cl2O
Property
Melting 1193 3075 2045 1728 563 -76 -60
point(oC)
Boiling 1278 3601 2980 2231 301 -10 -9
point(oC)
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Bond type Ionic Ionic Ionic Covalen Covalent Covalent Covalent
t
Chemical Giant Giant Giant ionic Giant Simple Simple Simple
structure ionic ionic atomic/ molecula molecula molecula
covalent or or or
molecule molecules molecule

State at Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid gas Gas

room (Cl2O7 is a
temperature liquid)

Nature of Basic/ Basic/ Amphotell 2:8:4 2:8:5 2:8:6 2:8:7

Oxide alkaline alkaline ic oxide

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 Reaction React to React to Don’t react Don’t React to -SO2 react -Cl2O7
with water form form with water. react with form to form reacts to
NaOH MgOH)2 water. H2PO4 H2SO3 . form
/alkaline /weakly /weakly H2SO3 is HClO4
solution alkaline acidic quickly /weakly
solution solution oxidized to acidic
H2SO4 solution
-SO2 react
to form
H2SO4/
strongly
acidic

Reaction Reacts to Reacts to Reacts to No No No reaction No reaction

with dilute form salt form salt form salt reaction reaction
acids and and and water
water water

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 4. Sodium oxide and magnesium oxide are basic
/alkaline in nature.
Aluminium oxide is amphotellic in nature (shows
both acidic and basic characteristics).
The rest of the oxides are acidic in nature.
5. Ionic compounds/oxides have very high
melting/boiling points because of the strong
electrostatic attraction joining the giant ionic crystal
lattice.
The melting/boiling points increase from sodium
oxide to aluminium oxide as the number of electrons
involved in bonding increase, increasing the strength
of the ionic bond/structure.
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 1. All the oxides of elements in period 3 except those of sulphur
and chlorine are solids at room temperature and pressure.
2. Across/along the period, bonding of the oxides changes from…
-ionic in sodium oxide magnesium oxide and
-aluminium oxide (show both ionic and covalent properties) to
-covalent in the rest of the oxides.
3. Across/along the period, the structure of the oxides changes
from…
-giant ionic structure in sodium oxide, magnesium oxide and
aluminium oxide to
-giant atomic/covalent structure in silicon (IV) oxide.
The rest of the oxides form simple molecules/molecular
structure.

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 6. Silicon (IV) oxide is made of a well packed giant
atomic/covalent structure joined by strong covalent
bonds.
This results in a solid with very high melting/boiling
point.
7.Phosphorus (V) oxide, sulphur(IV) oxide/ sulphur
(VI) oxide and dichloride heptoxide exist as simple
molecules/molecular structure joined by weak van-der-
waals/intermolecular forces.
This results in them existing as low melting /boiling
point solids/gases.

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 8. Ionic oxide conducts electricity in molten and
aqueous states but not in solid.
In solid state the ions are fused/fixed but on heating to
molten state and when dissolved in water, the ions are
free / mobile.
Sodium oxide, magnesium oxide and aluminium oxide
are therefore good conductors in molten and aqueous
states.
9. Covalent bonded oxides do not conduct electricity in
solid, molten or in aqueous states.
This is because they do not have free / mobile ion.
Phosphorus (V) oxide, sulphur(IV) oxide/ sulphur (VI)
oxide and dichloride heptoxide are thus non-
conductors/insulators.
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 10. Silicon (IV) oxide is a poor/weak conductor of heat
in solid state.
This is because it has very closely packed structure for
heat to radiate conduct along its structure.
11. Electopositivity decrease across the period while
electronegativity increase across the period.
The oxides thus become less ionic and more covalent
along/across the period.
12.The steady change from giant ionic structure to giant
atomic/ covalent structure then simple molecular
structure lead to profound differences in the reaction of
the oxides with water, acids and alkalis/bases:

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 (i) Reaction with water
a) Ionic oxides react with water to form alkaline
solutions e.g.;
I.Sodium oxide reacts/dissolves in water forming an
alkaline solution of sodium hydroxide.
Chemical equation:
Na2O(s) + H2O (l) -> 2NaOH(aq)
II. Magnesium oxide slightly/ slowly reacts/dissolves in
water forming an alkaline solution of magnesium
hydroxide
Chemical equation
MgO(s) + 2H2O (l) -> Mg(OH) 2 (aq)
III. Aluminium oxide does reacts/dissolves in water.
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 b) Non-metallic oxides are acidic.
They react with water to form weakly acidic solutions:
I. Phosphorus (V) oxide readily reacts/dissolves in water forming a
weak acidic solution of phosphoric (V) acid.
Chemical equation:
P4O10 (s) + 6H2O (l) -> 4H3PO4 (aq)
Chemical equation:
P2O5 (s) + 3H2O (l) -> 2H3PO4 (aq)
II. Sulphur (IV) oxide readily reacts/dissolves in water forming a
weak acidic solution of sulphuric (IV) acid
Chemical equation:
SO2 (g) + H2O (l) -> H2SO3 (aq)
Sulphur (VI) oxide quickly fumes in water to form concentrated
sulphuric (VI) acid which is a strong acid.
Chemical equation:
184 [email protected]
(g) + H2O (l) -> H2SO4 (aq)
 III. Dichlorine oxide reacts with water to form weak acidic
solution of chloric(I) acid/hypochlorous acid.
Chemical equation:
Cl2O (g) + H2O (l) -> 2HClO (aq)
IV. Dichlorine heptoxide reacts with water to form weak acidic
solution of chloric(VII) acid.
Chemical equation:
Cl2O7 (l) + H2O (l) -> 2HClO4 (aq)
c) Silicon (IV) oxide does not react with water.
It reacts with hot concentrated alkalis forming silicate (IV) salts.
e.g.
Silicon (IV) oxide react with hot concentrated sodium hydroxide
to form sodium silicate (IV) salt.
Chemical equation:
SiO2 (s) +2NaOH (aq) -> Na2SiO3 (aq) +H2O (l)
185 [email protected]
 (ii) Reaction with dilute acids
a) Ionic oxides react with dilute acids to form
salt and water only.
This is a neutralization reaction. e.g.
Chemical equation:
Na2O(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> Na2SO4 (aq) +H2O(l)
Chemical equation:
MgO(s) +2HNO3(aq)-> Mg (NO3) 2 (aq)+ H2O(l)
Chemical equation:
Al2O3 (s) + 6HCl(aq) -> 2AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2O(l)

186 [email protected]
Aluminium oxide is amphotellic and reacts with
hot concentrated strong alkalis sodium/potassium
hydroxides to form complex sodium aluminate(III)
and potassium aluminate(III) salt.
Chemical equation:
Al2O3 (s) +2NaOH(aq) +3H2O(l)-> 2NaAl(OH)4 (aq)
Chemical equation:
Al2O3 (s) + 2KOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) -> 2 KAl(OH)4 (aq)

b) Acidic oxides do not react with dilute acids.

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c)Periodicity of the Chlorides of elements along/across
period 3
The table below summarizes some properties of the chlorides of
elements in period 3 of the periodic table.
Formular NaCl MgCl2 AlCl3 SiCl4 PCl5 SCl2 Cl2
of PCl3 S2Cl2
chloride/
Property
Melting 801 714 Sublimes -70 PCl5 -78 -101
point(oC) at Sublimes
180 oC at
-94 oC
Boiling 1465 1418 423(as 57 74(as decompo -34
point(oC) Al2Cl6 P2Cl6 ses
vapour Vapour at 59 oC
164 (as
PCl5)

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Bond type Ionic Ionic Ionic/ Covalent Covalent Covalent Covalent
Covalent/
dative

Chemical Giant Giant Molecular/ Simple Simple Simple Simple

structure ionic ionic dimerizes molecula molecula molecula molecula
structur structur or or or or
e e molecule molecule molecules molecule

State at Solid Solid Solid liquid Liquid liquid Gas

room PCl5
temperatur is solid
e
Nature of Neutral Neutral Strongly Strongly Strongly Strongly Strongly
Chloride acidic acidic acidic acidic acidic

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 7.0 7.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
pH of
solution
Reaction Dissolve Dissolve - - Hydrolysed Hydrolysed Forms
with water Hydrolysed Hydrolysed by water by water HCl and
by water by water -Acidic -Acidic HClO
-Acidic -Acidic hydrogen hydrogen
hydrogen hydrogen chloride chloride
chloride chloride fumes fumes
fumes fumes produced produced
produced produced
Electrical good good poor nil nil nil nil
conductivity
in
molten/aque
ous state

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 Formular of chloride/ NaCl MgCl2 AlCl3 SiCl4 PCl5 SCl2 Cl2
Property PCl3 S2Cl2
Melting 801 714 Sublimes at -70 PCl5 -78 -101
point(oC) 180 oC Sublimes at
-94 oC
Boiling 1465 1418 423(as Al2Cl6 57 74(as P2Cl6 decomposes -34
point(oC) vapour Vapour at 59 oC
164 (as PCl5)

Bond type Ionic Ionic Ionic/ Covalent Covalent Covalent Covalent

Covalent/
dative
Chemical structure Giant Giant Molecular/ Simple Simple Simple Simple
ionic ionic dimerizes molecula molecula molecula molecula
structure structure or molecule or molecule or molecules or
molecule
State at room Solid Solid Solid liquid Liquid liquid Gas
temperature PCl5
is solid
Nature of Neutral Neutral Strongly Strongly Strongly Strongly Strongly
Chloride acidic acidic acidic acidic acidic
7.0 7.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
pH of solution
Reaction with water Dissolve Dissolve -Hydrolysed -Hydrolysed Hydrolysed Hydrolysed Forms HCl
by water by water by water by water and HClO
-Acidic -Acidic -Acidic -Acidic
hydrogen hydrogen hydrogen hydrogen
chloride chloride chloride chloride
fumes fumes fumes fumes
produced produced produced produced

Electrical conductivity in molten/aqueous state good good poor nil nil nil nil

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 1. Sodium Chloride, Magnesium chloride and aluminium chloride
are solids at room temperature and pressure.
Silicon(IV) chloride, phosphorus ( III) chloride and disulphur
dichloride are liquids.
Phosphorus(V)chloride is a solid.
Both chlorine and sulphur chloride are gases.
2. Across/along the period bonding changes from ionic in Sodium
Chloride and Magnesium chloride to covalent in the rest of the
chlorides.
3. Anhydrous aluminium chloride is also a molecular compound
.Each aluminium atom is covalently bonded to three chlorine atoms.
In vapour/gaseous phase/state two molecules dimerizes to Al2O6
molecule through coordinate/dative bonding.

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 4. Across/along the period the structure changes from giant ionic
in Sodium Chloride and Magnesium chloride to simple
molecules/molecular structure in the rest of the chlorides.
5. Ionic chlorides have very high melting /boiling points because
of the strong ionic bond/electrostatic attraction between the ions
in their crystal lattice.
The rest of the chlorides have low melting /boiling points because
of the weak van-der-waal /intermolecular forces.
6. Sodium Chloride and Magnesium chloride in molten and
aqueous state have free/mobile ions and thus good electrical
conductors.
Aluminium chloride is a poor conductor.
The rest of the chlorides do not conduct because they have no
free/mobile ions.
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 7. Ionic chloride form neutral solutions with pH =7.
These chlorides ionize/dissociate completely into free
cations and anions .i.e;
Sodium Chloride and Magnesium chloride have pH=7
because they are fully/completely ionized/dissociated into
free ions.
Chemical equation
NaCl (s) -> Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Chemical equation
MgCl2 (s) -> Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
8 Across/along the period from aluminium chloride,
hydrolysis of the chloride takes place when
reacting/dissolved in water.
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 Hydrolysis is the reaction of a compound when
dissolved in water. i.e.
a)Aluminium chloride is hydrolyzed by water
to form aluminium hydroxide and fumes of
hydrogen chloride gas.
Hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water to
acidic hydrochloric acid.
Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid with low pH
and thus the mixture is strongly acidic.
Chemical equation
AlCl3 (s) + 3H2O(l)-> Al(OH)3(s) +3HCl(g)
195 [email protected]
 b)Silicon(IV) chloride is hydrolyzed by water to
form silicon(IV)oxide and fumes of hydrogen chloride
gas.
Hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water to acidic
hydrochloric acid.
Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid with low pH and
thus the mixture is strongly acidic.

Chemical equation
SiCl4 (l) + 2H2O(l)-> SiO2(s) + 4HCl(g)
This reaction is highly exothermic producing
/evolving a lot of heat that cause a rise in the
temperature of the mixture.
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 c) Both phosphoric (V) chloride and phosphoric (III)
chloride are hydrolyzed by water to form phosphoric (V)
acid and phosphoric (III) acid respectively.
Fumes of hydrogen chloride gas are produced.
Hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water to acidic
hydrochloric acid.
Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid with low pH and
thus the mixture is strongly acidic.
Chemical equation
PCl5 (s) + 4H2O(l)-> H3PO4(aq) + 5HCl(g)
Chemical equation
PCl3 (s) + 3H2O(l)-> H3PO4(aq) + 3HCl(g)
This reaction is also highly exothermic producing /evolving
a lot of heat that cause a rise in the temperature of the
197mixture.
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 d) Disulphur dichloride similarly hydrolyzes
in water to form yellow deposits of sulphur and
produce a mixture of sulphur (IV) oxide and
hydrogen chloride gas.
Hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water to
acidic hydrochloric acid.
Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid with low
pH and thus the mixture is strongly acidic.
Chemical equation
2S2Cl2 (l) + 2H2O(l)-> 3S(s) +SO2(g) + 4HCl(g)

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Chemical
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