ICS 2306 : COMPUTER NETWORKS

Chapter 2
 Network Protocols and Standards

 Communications and network protocols

Network Protocols and Standards

 Protocols and the OSI model
 Protocols in real-world networks
 The Internet

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LEARNING OUTCOME

 By the end of this topic, students will be able to:

 Explain the purpose of network protocols

Network Protocols and Standards

 Relate protocols to the OSI Reference model
 Describe the use of protocols in real-life networks
 Describe the protocols used by the Internet
 Explain the purpose of network protocols
 Relate protocols to the OSI Reference model
 Describe the use of protocols in real-life networks
 Describe the protocols used by the Internet

3
WHAT IS A PROTOCOL?
 Interms of network communications, a protocol is an
agreement between communicating parties on how a
communication will take place.

Network Protocols and Standards

 It is simply the rules of the conversation.

 Itmakes sense to have sets of rules agreed before any

conversation takes place (STANDARDS).

 Different conversations can use different protocols.

4
LAYERS AND PROTOCOLS
 We have already examined the OSI 7-layer model.
 The OSI model is a conceptual model – it does not tell us
how the communication is carried out.

Network Protocols and Standards

 Each layer has its own protocols.
 So, we have a protocol stack with protocols matching the
layers of our model.
 Network communications use many protocols in one
communication.

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PROTOCOL TYPES
 We can divide protocols into general types depending upon
their purpose and how they are implemented:

Network Protocols and Standards

• Hardware protocols
• Software protocols
• Hardware-software interface

6
HARDWARE PROTOCOLS
 Define how hardware devices operate together
 Includes:

Network Protocols and Standards

 Voltage levels
 Wires used

 Pins on connectors
 Does not involve software but is controlled by electronic
circuitry

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SOFTWARE PROTOCOLS
 Programs communicate with each other via software
protocols.

Network Protocols and Standards

 This includes the protocols required to talk to other devices
and services.

 There are different protocols for different kinds of networks.

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HARDWARE/SOFTWARE INTERFACE
 Software needs to access hardware, e.g. a message waiting in
memory

Network Protocols and Standards

 Software needs to know:

 Where data resides

 What order to access data in

 What happens next

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SOME COMMON PROTOCOLS
 HTTP
 FTP

Network Protocols and Standards

 IP
 TCP
 POP3
 SMTP
 IMAP

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PROTOCOLS AND THE OSI MODEL
 There is no single protocol that is specific to a single layer.

 The protocols are dependent upon:

Network Protocols and Standards

 The network type
 The manufacturer of the hardware
 We will now examine some of the common protocols that
relate to specific layers of the OSI Model

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CONNECTIONLESS VERSUS
CONNECTION-ORIENTED PROTOCOLS
 Protocols that use connectionless delivery place data on
the network and assume it will get through
 Connectionless protocols aren’t entirely reliable

Network Protocols and Standards

 Are fast: little overhead, don’t waste time
establishing/managing/tearing down connections
 Connection-oriented protocols are more reliable and,
consequently, slower
 Two computers establish a connection before data transfer
begins
 In a connection, data is sent in an orderly fashion
 Ensures that all data is received and is accurate, or that
suitable error messages are generated

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ROUTABLE VERSUS NONROUTABLE
PROTOCOLS
 The network layer (OSI) is responsible for moving data
across multiple networks

Network Protocols and Standards

 Routers are responsible for routing process
 Protocol suites that function at Network layer are
routable or routed protocols; otherwise, they are called
nonroutable
 TCP/IP and IPX/SPX are routable protocols
 An older and nearly obsolete protocol, NetBEUI, is a
nonroutable protocol that works well in small networks, but
its performance drops considerably as a network grows

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THE PHYSICAL LAYER
 Largely mechanical, electrical, timing issues
 The protocols associated with the physical layer are
dependent upon the type of network.

Network Protocols and Standards

 Many protocols that define communications in the physical
layer are covered by the IEEE 802 series (but these overlap
into the data link layer).
 Data type: bits
 Devices on this layer include the transmission media such as
fibre optic cable, etc.

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IEEE 802
 Standards for many kinds of Local Area Networks (LANs)
 Many have not survived with time, but there are a number
of important standards, including:

Network Protocols and Standards

 802.3, Ethernet
 802.11, Wireless LANs
 802.15, Personal area networks (Bluetooth)
 802.16, Broadband wireless

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LANS
 A LAN is a privately owned network covering a small area
such as:
An office

Network Protocols and Standards



 A building
 A small geographical area (e.g. a campus)
 LANs are distinguished by:
 Their geographical size
 The transmission technology
 Their topology (the layout of computer
connections)
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PHYSICAL LAYER STANDARDS
 The Physical Layer is controlled by electronic devices, so
the standards relate to these, e.g.

Network Protocols and Standards

 RS232, Interface Between Data Terminal
Equipment and Data Circuit Terminating
Equipment Employing Serial Binary Data
Interchange
 RS422, Electrical Characteristics of
Balanced Voltage Digital Interface Circuits.

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THE DATA LINK LAYER
 Responsible for communications between adjacent network
nodes
 Divided into 2 sublayers:

Network Protocols and Standards

 The Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer
 The Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer
 Data type: frames
 Many protocols also covered by IEEE 802 series
 Devices: switch, bridge

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THE DATA LINK SUBLAYERS
 The Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer manages
protocol access to the physical network medium. The IEEE
MAC specification defines MAC addresses, which allow

Network Protocols and Standards

multiple devices to be uniquely identified at the data link
layer.

 The Logical Link Control (LCC) sublayer manages

communications between devices over a single link of a
network. LCC is defined in the IEEE 802.2 specification.

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WHAT IS A FRAME?
 Data packets are encapsulated into frames. A header
with a hardware (MAC) destination and source address
are added. A data frame includes:

Network Protocols and Standards

 Bit pattern indicating the start of a frame
 Destination address

 Source address

 Data

 Frame sequence check

 Other elements that may be protocol specific

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DATA LINK LAYER PROTOCOLS
 Ethernet , CSMA/CD
 Token Ring

Network Protocols and Standards

 FDDI
 IEEE 802.11 (WLAN, Wi-Fi)
 ATM
 PPP
 HDLC

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THE NETWORK LAYER
 Responsible for establishing paths for data transfer through
the network (routing)
 Translates the logical address into the physical address, e.g.

Network Protocols and Standards

computer name into MAC address.
 Data type: packets
 Devices: router, frame relay device, ATM switch

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PACKETS
 A packet is an independent, self-contained message sent
over the network
 Includes:

Network Protocols and Standards

 A header
 Addressing information
 The data

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NETWORK LAYER PROTOCOLS
 IP
 OSPF

Network Protocols and Standards

 RIP
 BGP
 NetBEUI
 DDP

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THE TRANSPORT LAYER
 Responsible for delivering messages between networked
hosts and the fragmentation and reassembly of messages

Network Protocols and Standards

 Acknowledgement of received segments
 Retransmission of segments not
acknowledged
 Proper re-sequencing of segments
 Flow control to manage the data so no data
is lost
 Data type: segment
 Devices: bridge router (brouter), gateway
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TRANSPORT LAYER PROTOCOLS
 TCP
 UDP

Network Protocols and Standards

 NetBEUI
 SPX
 ATP

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THE SESSION LAYER - 1
 Responsible for establishing process-to-process
communications between networked hosts
 Offers three communications modes

Network Protocols and Standards

 Simplex - Only one device transmits
 Half-duplex - Each side takes turns
transmitting from one side at a time
 Full-duplex - Devices on both sides of the
communications channel can talk at the
same time
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THE SESSION LAYER - 2
 Connection split into the following three phases:

Connection establishment

Network Protocols and Standards



 Data transfer
 Connection termination
 Data type: session
 Devices: gateway

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SESSION LAYER PROTOCOLS
 ASP
 NetBIOS

Network Protocols and Standards

29
THE PRESENTATION LAYER
 Responsible for defining the syntax that two network hosts
use to communicate
 Makes it possible for different systems with different data

Network Protocols and Standards

structures to communicate
 Provides a variety of encoding and encryption functions
applied to application layer data
 Ensures that information sent from the application layer of
one system will be readable by the application layer of
another system

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ENCODING/ENCRYPTION SCHEMES
 Conversion of character representation formats – e.g.
convert to ASCII characters
 Common data representation formats - standard image,

Network Protocols and Standards

sound, and video formats -
e.g. JPEG, MPEG, and RealAudio
 Common data compression schemes - e.g.  WinZip or Gzip

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PRESENTATION LAYER PROTOCOLS
 AFP
 SMB

Network Protocols and Standards

 NCP
 SSL
 MIME

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THE APPLICATION LAYER
 Responsible for providing end-user services, such as file
transfers, email, virtual terminal access, and network
management

Network Protocols and Standards

 The layer with which the user interacts
 This layer deals with application data

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APPLICATION LAYER PROTOCOLS
 DHCP
 FTP

Network Protocols and Standards

 SMTP
 POP3
 IMAP
 HTTP
• Note: You should research all of the protocols mentioned in this
lecture to get an idea what they do.

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NETWORK CLASSIFICATIONS
 Defined by the area covered
 Local Area Network (LAN)

Network Protocols and Standards

 A LAN is a privately owned network
covering a small area
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Covers a town or city
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 A network that crosses regional, national and
international boundaries

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NETWORKS
 Ethernet
 Fast Ethernet

Network Protocols and Standards

 Token Ring
 Other LAN technologies
 Peer-to-Peer
 Client-Server

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ETHERNET
 Very common LAN standard
 Bus topology – all computers and peripherals are connected
along a single cable segment

Network Protocols and Standards

 IEEE 802.3

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BROADCAST NETWORK
 When a node (computer) sends a message to another
computer, it broadcasts the message to the entire network
 The other nodes listen and if the message is for them they

Network Protocols and Standards

keep the data, if not they ignore it
 Each node has an address
 Data is sent with the address to identify the recipient

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ETHERNET ISSUES
 Cable breaks
 What happens if there is a break in the cable?
 There is a split in the network, so communication is

Network Protocols and Standards

impossible between the two sections.
 Signal reflection
 A message is an electrical signal. What happens when it
reaches the end of the cable?
 The messages passed are simple electrical signals
 These will be reflected at cable ends and appear as a collision
 Collisions
 How does the network determine who has the right to
send a message? What happens if two nodes send
messages at the same time?
 Reflection is prevented by having the cable terminated with a resistor(impedance)
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 This dissipates the signal and prevents reflection
COLLISIONS
 Before transmitting a signal, a node listens to the network
and only transmits if there is no traffic.
 This does not prevent two nodes transmitting at the same

Network Protocols and Standards

time.
 If two or more nodes broadcast at the same time, there is a
collision and the message cannot be received.
 A method is required for dealing with this.

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CSMA/CD
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
 A simple protocol

Network Protocols and Standards

 Any node can send a message when the network is free.
 If the cable is busy, it waits until it is free.
 Removes a lot of unnecessary waiting time by allowing
transmission at any time.

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CSMA/CD COLLISIONS
 Two nodes may detect that the network is free at any one
time and both transmit.
 The signals collide preventing either from being received.

Network Protocols and Standards

 Energy levels on the line are increased and the collision is
detected, nodes then:

 Stop transmitting
 Wait for a random back-off interval
 Then attempt to retransmit

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CSMA/CD CHARACTERISTICS
 No predetermined transmission order
 No guaranteed wait time before transmission

Network Protocols and Standards

 Probability of collision increases as data rates increase -
network saturates before theoretical limit
 Nodes transmitting at a high rate tend to take over the
network

43
FAST ETHERNET
 Ethernet originally ran at 5Mbps, then 10 Mbps
 This is too slow for many applications

Network Protocols and Standards

 Fast Ethernet was introduced that ran CSMA/CD at speeds
of 100Mbps
 This was followed by Gigabit Ethernet at speeds of
1000Mbps
 100 Gigabit Ethernet is now a formal standard.
 It is suggested that Terabit Ethernet will be available by
2015

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TOKEN RING
 All nodes are connected in a ring
 IEEE 802.5

Network Protocols and Standards

 Now mainly present in legacy IBM systems

45
TOKEN PASSING
 A token is a special frame that circulates the ring, node by
node.
 Only the node in possession of the token can transmit.

Network Protocols and Standards

 Messages pass around the ring until they reach the
destination node.
 The transmitting node then passes the token to the next
node.
 Fairly distributes right to transmit

46
PROBLEM
 Transmission is one way, a break in the ring stops
transmission

Network Protocols and Standards

 Modern rings are physically star shaped and operate through
a hub that automatically removes damaged nodes thus
“fixing” the ring

47
FDDI
 Fibre Distributed Data Interface
 Double ring transmitting in two directions, so transmission
is possible if one ring is broken

Network Protocols and Standards

 Now not a competitive technology

48
ATM
 Asynchronous Data Transfer Mode
 Intended as a replacement for telephony and data networks

Network Protocols and Standards

 Uses a cell switching approach for high data rate
transmission
 Has been widely used as a LAN backbone technology,
despite requiring complicated interfaces
 Now overtaken by Gigabit Ethernet

49
CLIENT-SERVER NETWORKS
 Typically star-shaped networks
 Central server holds data and programs for client computers

Network Protocols and Standards

 Central server also allows the sharing of resources (SAM)
 Clients (workstations) often have no hard drive

50
THIN CLIENT (1)

Network Protocols and Standards

•Concentrate computing power on a central
server

51
THIN CLIENT (2)
 Main Advantages of a Thin Client Network.
 Highly reliable system that delivers dependable computing

Network Protocols and Standards

 Technical issues are minimized for users, as they are
centralized on a server(s)
 Limited risk of virus attack– as virus management is centrally
controlled on servers(s)
 Standard personal desktop, programs and data files available
from any login point
 Small silent thin client computers that consume less energy
and produce less heat
 Less expensive than full PCs

52
THIN CLIENT (3)
 Main Disadvantages of a Thin Client Network.• As the
server(s) is critical to the operation of all computers on the
network, there is a

Network Protocols and Standards

 higher impact to the users if the server(s) fails. A redundant
application server (i.e. a second server) is required in case of
failure with the main application server.
 A higher level of planning is required to ensure that all parts of
the system work properly together, hardware, software etc.
 Technical expertise is more specialised and as a result may be
more expensive.
 All computers need to be connected to a thin Client server in
order to operate.
 Standalone PCs cannot avail of server based learning
53
applications
DHCP
 Client-server networks often allow for devices to be added
and removed
 The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol is often used to

Network Protocols and Standards

assign unique IP addresses to devices
 The address can be released when a device leaves the
network
 This same address can then be allocated to another device
when it joins

54
DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION
PROTOCOL (DHCP)
 Detailed configuration of devices, keeping track of
assigned addresses and to which machine they were
assigned, etc., is difficult in large networks

Network Protocols and Standards

 DHCP was developed to make this process easier
 DHCP server must be configured with a block of available IP
addresses and their subnet masks
 Clients must be configured to use DHCP
 Broadcast request message is sent on boot
 Client leases the address the server assigns to it

 If no answer is received, in an APIPA-enabled OS, the computer

assigns itself an address (169.254.x.x)

55
PEER-TO-PEER (P2P) NETWORKS
 Nodes generally have their own hard drive
 Nodes often have their own peripheral devices

Network Protocols and Standards

 Control of a node is autonomous (SAM)
 Resources are shared at the discretion of individual users
 Individual nodes can act as both clients and servers
 Gnutella is a common (P2P) protocol

56
WHAT IS THE INTERNET?
 A collection
of networks that use common protocols to
provide common services.

Network Protocols and Standards

 Uses the TCP/IP reference model
 Uses the TCP/IP protocol stack
 To be part of the Internet, a computer must also:

 Have an IP address
 Be able to send IP packets to other machines on

the Internet
57
TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL
• Has 4 layers

Network Protocols and Standards

58
HOST-TO-NETWORK LAYER
 Not specified in detail in the model
 The host has to connect to the network via some protocol

Network Protocols and Standards

 The protocol must allow it to send IP packets

59
INTERNET LAYER
 Permits hosts to inject packets into any network and travel
independently to their destination
 Packets may be delivered in any order

Network Protocols and Standards

 Role is to ensure packets get to the right address
 The Internet Protocol (IP) is responsible for this
 The internet layer is present in the Internet but not specific
to the Internet
 Packet switching is the key function

60
TRANSPORT LAYER
 Is designed to allow source and destination to have a
conversation
 Uses one of two protocols:

Network Protocols and Standards

 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 Comparable to the OSI Transport Layer

61
APPLICATION LAYER
 The TCP/IP model does not have session or presentation
layers
 This layer consists of high level protocols such as:

Network Protocols and Standards

 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
 HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

62
INTERNET PROTOCOL
 Defines the rules that determine how packets are transferred
from one host to another
 It is not a reliable protocol:

Network Protocols and Standards

 Packets may not be delivered
 Packets may be delivered out of sequence
 Every host must have a unique IP address that identifies it.

63
IPV4 ADDRESSES
 Internet Protocol version 4
 Each address is a dotted quad in the form 101.4.233.1

Network Protocols and Standards

 Each address is made up of four decimal numbers between 0
and 255 separated by a dot
 Each address is 32 bits
 232= 4 294 967 296 possible addresses

64
IP ADDRESSING
 Logical addresses are 32 bits (4 bytes) long
 Each byte is represented as an octet (decimal number from 0
to 255)

Network Protocols and Standards

 Usually represented in dotted decimal notation
 E.g., 172.24.208.192
 Address has two parts: network and host ID
 E.g. 172.24.208.192 (172.24.0.0 and 208.192)
 Categorized into ranges referred to as classes
 Class system provides basis for determining which part of address is
the network and which is the host ID
 The first octet of an address denotes its class

65
IP ADDRESSING (CONTINUED)
 Classes
 Class A: first octet between 1-126
16,777,214 hosts per network address

Network Protocols and Standards



 Class B: first octet between 127-191

 65,534 hosts per network address
 Class C: first octet between 192-223
 254 hosts per network address
 Class D: first octet between 224-239
 Reserved for multicasting
 Class E: first octet between 240-255
 Reserved for experimental use

66
IP ADDRESSING (CONTINUED)
 127.0.0.0 network is called the loopback address
 localhost always corresponds to address 127.0.0.1

Network Protocols and Standards

 IETF reserved addresses for private networks
 Class A addresses beginning with 10
 Class B addresses from 172.16 to 172.31
 Class C addresses from 192.168.0 to 192.168.255
 These addresses can’t be routed across the Internet
 To access the Internet, NAT is needed
 IPv6 eliminates need for private addressing; provides a 128-
bit address (vs. IPv4’s 32 bits)

67
CLASSLESS INTERDOMAIN ROUTING
(CIDR)
 Addressing by class has been superseded by a more
flexible addressing method

Network Protocols and Standards

 Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR)
 The network and host demarcation can be made with any
number of bits from beginning of address
 E.g., a Class C address’s network section is 24 bits
 Using CIDR, an address registry can assign an address with a
network section of 26 bits
 192.203.187.0/26

 Subnetting divides network address in two or more

subnetwork addresses (with fewer host IDs for each)

68
WHY SUBNET?
 Subnetting
 Makes more efficient use of available IP addresses
 Enables dividing networks into logical groups

Network Protocols and Standards

 Can make network communication more efficient
 Broadcast frames are sent to all computers on the same
IP network
 Hubs and switches forward broadcast frames; routers do not
 Broadcast domain: extent to which a broadcast frame is
forwarded without going through a router
 Subnetting reduces broadcast traffic

69
SUBNET MASKS
 Subnet mask determines which part of address denotes
network portion and which denotes host

Network Protocols and Standards

 32-bit number
 A binary 1 signifies that the corresponding bit in the IP
address belongs to the network portion; a 0 signifies that bit
in address belongs to host portion
 Default subnet mask uses a 255 in each octet in address that
corresponds to the network portion
 Class A: 255.0.0.0
 Class B: 255.255.0.0

 Class C: 255.255.255.0

70
 Network Protocols and Standards
71
IP DATAGRAM - 1
IP DATAGRAM - 2
 The datagram is the packet sent around the network.
 Header information contains detail of where it came from,
where it is going to and processing information.

Network Protocols and Standards

 Data is the actual payload intended for the recipient.

72
SUBNETS
 A subnet is a logical subdivision of an IP network.
 Subnets are meaningless to any router outside the business.

Network Protocols and Standards

 Internal routers can use this to route packets to the relevant
subnetwork.
 By organising hosts into logical groups, subnetting can
improve network security and performance.

73
SUBNET ADDRESSING
 The most significant part of the address is used to indicate
which network is intended, e.g. 192.168.1.0.
 Devices on this subnet have addresses in the range

Network Protocols and Standards

192.168.1.1 - 192.168.1.254.
 192.168.1.255 cannot be assigned as it is reserved for
broadcast.
 Multiple subnets can be used on one network.

74
MULTIPLE SUBNETS
 A router could have the address 192.168.0.0.
 There could be a number of subnets within an address:

Network Protocols and Standards

 192.168.1.0
 192.168.2.0
 192.168.3.0
 Etc.

75
NETWORK ADDRESS TRANSLATION
(NAT)

Network Protocols and Standards

76
IPV6
 Problem with IPv4 - Not enough addresses
 Solution – a new version of IP

Network Protocols and Standards

 IP version 6 addresses are made up of 128 bits.
 2128, or about 3.403×1038, unique addresses
 Represented by 8 groups of 16-bit hexadecimal values
separated by colons, e.g.
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0170:4334
 Many applications do not yet support IPv6.

77
FROM IPV4 TO IPV6
 Address increased from 32-bit to 128-bit
 Allows node to specify the message path

Network Protocols and Standards

 Smaller header but addresses are longer
 Allows for more header options in the future
 Quality of service capabilities allow non-standard handling
of packets
 Allow for the handling of authentication, confidentiality and
data integrity

78
TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL -
1
 Designed to provide reliable delivery for IP
 Takes care of breaking data into packets and reassembling at
the destination host

Network Protocols and Standards

 Checks if packet is corrupted and requests a resend if it is
 Checks number of packets and requests replacement if one
is missing
 Handles timeouts and transmission errors

79
TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL -
2
 A connection-oriented protocol - a connection is established
and maintained until such time as the messages have been
exchanged

Network Protocols and Standards

 Establishes a full duplex virtual connection between two
endpoints
 Each endpoint is defined by an IP address and a TCP port
number
 Used with WWW, email and file transfer

80
USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL - 1
 A simple transmission model using headers of only 8 bytes
 Does not provide:

Network Protocols and Standards

 Reliability
 Ordering
 Data integrity
 Assumes error checking and correction is not necessary

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USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL - 2
 Does not have the delays that can be associated with TCP
 Used with IP in time-sensitive applications:

Network Protocols and Standards

 Gaming
 Voice over IP (VoIP)
 DNS

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FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL
 Uses TCP/IP to transmit/receive
 Works at the application layer

Network Protocols and Standards

 Uses a generic file structure that is independent of the
operating system
 Allows file transfer between dissimilar hosts

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SIMPLE MAIL TRANSFER PROTOCOL
 Uses TCP/IP to transmit
 Does not provide a user interface for sending and receiving
messages

Network Protocols and Standards

 Many Internet email applications do provide interfaces.
 Commonly used for sending email
 Most email clients use POP3 or IMAP for incoming mail.

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HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL
 Used throughout the World Wide Web for sending messages
and getting responses from servers
 Most common method is the GET method to request and

Network Protocols and Standards

receive a web page
 Other common methods are:

 PUT
 POST
 DELETE
 TRACE
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REFERENCES
 PriceB. (ed) (2003). Networking Complete, 3rd edition.
Sybex.
 Tanenbaum, A.S. & Weatherall, D.J. (2010). Computer

Network Protocols and Standards

Networks, 5th edition. Pearson Education.
 The IETF website: http://www.ietf.org

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