Chapter 18:
The Endocrine System
Endocrine System
• Regulates long-term processes:
– growth
– development
– reproduction
• Uses chemical messengers to relay information
and instructions between cells (4)
1. Direct Communication
• Exchange of ions and molecules between
adjacent cells across gap junctions
• Occurs between 2 cells of same type
• Highly specialized and relatively rare
2. Paracrine Communication
• Uses chemical signals to transfer information
from cell to cell within single tissue
• Most common form of intercellular
communication
3. Endocrine Communication
• Endocrine cells release chemicals (hormones)
into bloodstream
• Alters metabolic activities of many tissues and
organs simultaneously
Target Cells
• Are specific cells that possess receptors
needed to bind and “read” hormonal messages
• Hormones stimulate synthesis of enzymes or
structural proteins
– Increase or decrease rate of synthesis
– Turn existing enzyme or membrane channel “on”
or “off”
4. Synaptic Communication
• Endocrine System is unable to handle split-
second responses so Nervous System Handles
crisis management
• Releases neurotransmitter at a synapse that is
very close to target cells
• Ideal for crisis management
Mechanisms of
Intercellular Communication
Table 18–1
Endocrine and Nervous Systems
• Are similarly organized:
– rely on release of chemicals
– share many chemical messengers
– are regulated primarily by negative feedback
– share a common goal: to preserve homeostasis
Endocrine System
• Includes all endocrine cells and body tissues
that produce hormones or paracrine factors
Endocrine Cells
• Glandular secretory cells that release their
secretions into extracellular fluid
Exocrine Cells
• Secrete their products onto epithelial surfaces
Hormones
• Can be divided into 3 groups:
– amino acid derivatives
– peptide hormones
– lipid derivatives
1. Amino Acid Derivatives
• Small molecules structurally related to amino
acids
• Synthesized from the amino acids tyrosine and
tryptophan
– Tyrosine Derivatives
• Thyroid hormones
• Compounds:
– epinephrine (E)
– norepinephrine (NE)
– dopamine, also called catecholamines
– Tryptophan Derivative
• Melatonin:
– produced by pineal gland
2. Peptide Hormones – 2 groups
• Chains of amino acids
• Synthesized as prohormones:
– inactive molecules converted to active hormones
before or after secretion
• Group 1:
– glycoproteins:
• > than 200 amino acids long, w/ carbo side chains:
– thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
– luteinizing hormone (LH)
– follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Group 2:
– all hormones secreted by:
• hypothalamus
• heart
• thymus
• Group 2: con’t
• digestive tract
• pancreas
• posterior lobe of pituitary gland
• anterior lobe of pituitary gland
3. 2 Classes of Lipid Derivatives
– 1.Eicosanoids-derived from arachidonic acid,
important paracrine factors, coordinate cellular
activities, affect enzymatic processes in
extracellular fluids – 2 types
• Leukotrienes-eicosanoids released by activated
leukocytes (WBC), important in coordinating tissue
responses to injury or disease
• Prostaglandins-eicosanoids produced in most tissues of
body, involved in coordinating local cellular activities,
Sometimes converted to thromboxanes and prostacyclins
– 2. Steroid hormones - derived from cholesterol,
are lipids structurally similar to cholesterol, released by
reproductive organs (androgens by testes, estrogens,
and progestins by ovaries), adrenal glands
(corticosteroids), kidneys (calcitriol), remain in
circulation longer than peptide hormones, are absorbed
gradually by liver, are converted to soluble form, are
excreted in bile or urine
Hormone Receptor
• Is a protein molecule to which a particular
molecule binds strongly
• Responds to several different hormones
• Different tissues have different combinations
of receptors and the presence or absence of
specific receptor determines hormonal
sensitivity
Catecholamines and Peptide Hormones
• Are not lipid soluble
• Unable to penetrate cell membrane
• Bind to receptor proteins at outer surface of
cell membrane (extracellular receptors)
Eicosanoids
• Are lipid soluble
• Diffuse across membrane to reach receptor
proteins on inner surface of membrane
(intracellular receptors)
Hormones
• Binds to receptors in cell membrane
• Cannot have direct effect on activities inside
target cell
• Uses intracellular intermediary to exert
effects
– First messenger:
• leads to second messenger
• may act as enzyme activator, inhibitor, or cofactor
• results in change in rates of metabolic reactions
– Second messenger
• Cyclic-AMP (cAMP): derivative of ATP
• Cyclic-GMP (cGMP): derivative of GTP
• Calcium ions
G Protein
• Enzyme complex coupled to membrane
receptor
• Involved in link between first messenger and
second messenger
• Binds GTP
• Activated when hormone binds to receptor at
membrane surface
• Changes concentration of second messenger
cyclic-AMP (cAMP) within cell
• Increased cAMP level accelerates metabolic
activity within cell
G Proteins and Calcium Ions
• Activated G proteins trigger:
– opening of calcium ion channels in membrane
– release of calcium ions from intracellular stores
• G protein activates enzyme phospholipase C
(PLC)
• Enzyme triggers receptor cascade:
• production of diacylglycerol (DAG) and
inositol triphosphate (IP3) from membrane
phospholipids
Steroid Hormones
• Cross cell membrane
• Bind to receptors in
cytoplasm or nucleus,
activating or inactivating
specific genes
• Alter rate of DNA
transcription in
nucleus:
– change patterns of
protein synthesis
• Directly affect
metabolic activity and
structure of target cell
Thyroid Hormones
• Cross cell membrane:
– primarily by transport
mechanism
• Bind to receptors in
nucleus and on
mitochondria:
– activating specific genes
– changing rate of
transcription
Endocrine Reflexes - Control of System
• Functional counterparts of neural reflexes
• In most cases, controlled by negative feedback
mechanisms
Reflex Triggers
• Humoral stimuli:
– changes in composition of extracellular fluid
• Hormonal stimuli:
– arrival or removal of specific hormone
• Neural stimuli:
– arrival of neurotransmitters at neuroglandular
Simple Endocrine Reflex
• Involves only 1 hormone
• Controls hormone secretion by:
– heart
– pancreas
– parathyroid gland
– digestive tract
Complex Endocrine Reflex
• Involves:
– 1 or more intermediary steps
– 2 or more hormones
Hypothalamus
• Integrates activities
of nervous and
endocrine systems
in 3 ways:
1. Secretes regulatory
hormones:
– special hormones
control endocrine
cells in pituitary
gland
2. Acts as endocrine organ
3. Contains autonomic centers:
– exert direct neural control over endocrine cells
of adrenal medullae
Figure 18–5
Pituitary Gland
• Also called hypophysis
• Lies within sella turcica
• Hangs inferior to hypothalamus:
– connected by infundibulum
• Releases 9
important peptide
hormones
• Hormones bind to
membrane
receptors:
– use cAMP as
second messenger
Figure 18–6
2 Classes of Hypothalamic Regulatory Hormones
• Rate of secretion is controlled by negative feedback
• Hormones “turn on” endocrine glands or
support other organs
1. Releasing Hormones (RH)
Stimulate synthesis and
secretion of 1 or more
hormones at anterior lobe
2. Inhibiting Hormones
(IH) Prevent synthesis
and secretion of
hormones from
anterior lobe
Figure 18–8b
1. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
• Triggers release of thyroid hormones
2. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
(ACTH)
• Stimulates release of steroid hormones by
adrenal cortex
• Targets cells that produce glucocorticoids
3. Gonadotropins
• Regulate activities of gonads (testes, ovaries)
– Follicle-stimulating hormone
– Luteinizing hormone
4. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
• Stimulates follicle development and estrogen
secretion in females
• Stimulates sustentacular cells in males:
– promotes physical maturation of sperm
• Production inhibited by inhibin:
– peptide hormone released by testes and ovaries
5. Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
• Causes ovulation & progestin production
• Causes androgen production in males
LH & FSH production stimulated by gonadotropin-
releasing hormone (GnRH) from hypothalamus: GnRH
production inhibited by estrogens, progestins, and
androgens
6. Prolactin (PRL)
• Stimulates
development of
mammary glands and
milk production
• Production inhibited
by prolactin-
inhibiting hormone
(PIH)
• Stimulates PIH release
• Inhibits sec of prolactin-releasing factors (PRF)
7. Growth Hormone (GH)
• Also called somatotropin
• Stimulates cell growth and replication
• Production regulated by:
– growth hormone–releasing hormone (GH–RH)
– growth hormone–inhibiting hormone (GH–IH)
Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
• Also called melanotropin
• Stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin
• Inhibited by dopamine
• Secreted by pars intermedia during fetal
development, early childhood, pregnancy,
certain diseases
8. Antidiuretic Hormone
• Decreases amount of water lost at kidneys
• Elevates blood pressure
• Release inhibited by alcohol
9. Oxytocin
• Stimulates contractile cells in mammary
glands
• Stimulates smooth muscles in uterus
• Secretion and milk ejection are part of
neuroendocrine reflex
Summary: Hormones of the Pituitary Gland
Figure 18–9
Hypogonadism
• Low production of gonadotropins
• In children:
– will not undergo sexual maturation
• In adults:
– cannot produce functional sperm or oocytes
Diabetes Insipidus
• Inadequate amounts of ADH released from
posterior lobe
• Impairs water conservation at kidneys
Thyroid Gland
• Lies anterior to thyroid cartilage of larynx
• Consists of 2 lobes connected by narrow
isthmus
• Thyroid Follicles
– Hollow spheres lined by
cuboidal epithelium
– Cells surround follicle cavity
that contains viscous colloid
• Surrounded by network
of capillaries that:
– deliver nutrients and
regulatory hormones
– accept secretory products
and metabolic wastes
Thyroid Follicles
• Thyroglobulin
– Globular protein
– Synthesized by follicle
cells
– Secreted into colloid of
thyroid follicles
– Molecules contain amino
acid tyrosine
• Thyroxine (T4)
– Contains 4 iodide ions
• Triiodothyronine (T3)
– Contains 3 iodide ions Figure 18–11a, b
Rate of Thyroid Hormone Release
• Major factor:
– TSH concentration in
circulating blood
• Unbound Thyroid
Hormones
– Diffuse out of bloodstream
and into other tissues
– Disturb equilibrium
– Carrier proteins release
more thyroid hormones until
new equilibrium is reached
Figure 18–11b
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
• Absence causes thyroid follicles to become inactive:
– neither synthesis nor secretion occur
• Binds to membrane receptors
• Activates key enzymes in thyroid hormone production
Thyroid Hormones
• Enter target cells by
transport system
• Affect most cells in body
• Bind to receptors in:
– Cytoplasm, surfaces of
mitochondria, nucleus
• In children, essential to normal development
of:
– skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems
Thyroid Gland
• Is responsible for strong, immediate, and
short-lived increase in rate of cellular
metabolism
Iodide Ions
• Are actively transported into thyroid follicle
cells:
– stimulated by TSH
• Reserves in thyroid follicles
• Excess removed from blood at kidneys
• Deficiency limits rate of thyroid hormone
production
Parathyroid Glands
• Embedded in posterior surface of thyroid gland
• Produced by chief cells in
response to low concentrations of
Ca2+
• Primary regulators of blood
calcium I levels in adults
4 Effects of PTH
1. stimulates osteoclasts:
accelerates mineral turnover,
releases Ca2+ from bone
2. inhibits osteoblasts: reduces calcium deposition rate in bone
3. enhances reabsorption of Ca2+ at kidneys, reduc urinary loss
4. stimulates formation & secretion of calcitriol at kidneys
– Calcitrol
• Effects complement or enhance PTH
Figure 18–12
• Enhances Ca2+, PO43— absorption by digestive tract
Figure 18–13
Adrenal Glands
• Lie along superior border of each kidney
• Subdivided into superficial adrenal cortex and
an inner adrenal medulla
• Adrenal Cortex
– Stores lipids,
especially
cholesterol and
fatty acids
– Manufactures
steroid hormones:
• adrenocortical
steroids
(corticosteroids)
Adrenal Cortex
• Subdivided into 3 regions:
1. zona glomerulosa
2. zona fasciculate
3. zona reticularis
Zona Glomerulosa
• Outer region of adrenal cortex
• Produces mineralocorticoids:
– e.g., aldosterone
• Stimulates:
– conservation of sodium ions
– elimination of potassium ions
– Increases sensitivity of salt receptors in
taste buds
• Secretion responds to:
•drop in blood Na+, blood volume, or
blood pressure
•rise in blood K+ concentration
Zona Fasciculata
• Produces glucocorticoids
– Accelerate glucose synthesis and
glycogen formation
– Show anti-inflammatory effects:
– inhibit activities of white blood cells
and other components of immune
system
• Endocrine cells are larger and
contain more lipids than zona
glomerulosa
• Secretes cortisol (hydrocortisone)
with corticosterone:
– liver converts cortisol to
cortisone
Zona Reticularis
• Network of endocrine cells
• Forms narrow band bordering
each adrenal medulla
– Secretory activities controlled by
sympathetic division of ANS
– Produces epinephrine
(adrenaline) and norepinephrine
– Metabolic changes persist for
several minutes
• Produces androgens under
stimulation by ACTH
Pineal Gland
• Lies in posterior portion of roof of third
ventricle
• Contains pinealocytes:
– synthesize hormone melatonin
• Inhibiting reproductive functions
• Protecting against damage by free radicals
• Setting circadian rhythms
Pancreas
• Lies between:
– inferior border of stomach
– and proximal portion of small intestine
• Contains exocrine and endocrine cells
Endocrine Pancreas
• Cells form clusters:
– pancreatic islets, or islets of Langerhans
• 4 Types of Cells in Pancreatic
Islets
– Alpha cells: produce glucagon
– Beta cells: secrete insulin
– Delta cells: produce peptide
hormone identical to GH-IH
– F cells: secrete pancreatic
polypeptide (PP)
Pancreatic Islets
Figure 18–16
Blood Glucose Levels
• When levels rise:
– beta cells secrete insulin, stimulates transport of glucose
across cell membranes
Insulin
• Is a peptide hormone released by beta cells
• Affects target cells
• Functions
• Accelerates glucose uptake
• Accelerates glucose utilization and enhanced ATP
production
• Stimulates glycogen formation
• Stimulates amino acid absorption and protein synthesis
• Stimulates triglyceride formation in adipose tissue
• When levels decline:
•alpha cells secrete glucagons, stimulates
glucose release by liver
Glucagons
• Released by alpha cells
• Mobilize energy reserves
• Affects target cells
• Effects
• Stimulates breakdown of glycogen in skeletal
muscle and liver cells
• Stimulates breakdown of triglycerides in adipose
tissue
• Stimulates production of glucose in liver
Hormones Produced by Specific Organs
Intestines
• Produce hormones important to coordination
of digestive activities
Kidneys
• Produce the hormones calcitriol &
erythropoietin
• Produce the enzyme renin
Calcitriol
• Stimulates calcium and
phosphate ion absorption
along digestive tract
• Effects of Calcitriol
on Calcium Metabolism
– Stimulates formation and
differentiation of osteoprogenitor
cells and osteoclasts
– Stimulates bone resorption by
osteoclasts
– Stimulates Ca2+ reabsorption at kidneys
– Suppresses parathyroid hormone (PTH) production
Figure 18–17a
Renin
• Converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I
• Angiotensin I is converted to angiotensin II
Angiotensin II
1. Stimulates adrenal
production of
aldosterone
2. Stimulates pituitary
release of ADH
3. Promotes thirst
4. Elevates blood
pressure
Heart
• Produces natriuretic peptides (ANP and BNP):
– when blood volume becomes excessive
Natriuretic Peptide
• Action opposes angiotensin II
• Resulting in reduction in blood volume and
blood pressure
Thymus
• Produces thymosin hormones:
– that helps develop and maintain normal immune
defenses
Testes
• Produce androgens in interstitial cells:
– testosterone
• Secrete inhibin in sustentacular cells:
– support differentiation & physical maturation of
sperm
Ovaries
• Produce estrogens
• After ovulation, follicle cells:
– reorganize into corpus luteum
– release estrogens & progestins, especially progesterone
Adipose Tissue Secretions
1. Leptin:
– feedback control for appetite
– controls normal levels of GnRH, gonadotropin
synthesis
2. Resistin: reduces insulin sensitivity
Hormone Interactions
1. Antagonistic (opposing) effects
2. Synergistic (additive) effects
3. Permissive effects:
– 1 hormone is necessary for another to produce
effect
4. Integrative effects:
– hormones produce different and complementary
results
Hormones Important to Growth - 6
1. Growth Hormone (GH)
• In children:
– supports muscular and skeletal development
• In adults:
– maintains normal blood glucose concentrations
– mobilizes lipid reserves
2. Thyroid Hormones
• If absent during fetal development or for first year:
– nervous system fails to develop normally
– mental retardation results
• If T4 concentrations decline before puberty:
– normal skeletal development will not continue
3. Insulin
• Allows passage of glucose and amino acids
across cell membranes
4. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) &
5. Calcitriol
• Promote absorption of calcium salts for
deposition in bone
• Inadequate levels causes weak and flexible
bones
6. Reproductive Hormones
• Androgens in males, estrogens in females
• Stimulate cell growth and differentiation in
target tissues
• Produce gender-related differences in:
– skeletal proportions
– secondary sex characteristics
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
• Also called stress response
• How bodies respond to stress-
causing factors
• Is divided into 3 phases:
1. alarm phase
2. resistance phase
3. exhaustion phase
Figure 18–18
1. Alarm Phase
• Is an immediate response to
stress
• Is directed by ANS
• Energy reserves mobilized
(glucose)
• “Fight or flight” responses
• Dominant hormone is
epinephrine
• 7 Characteristics of Alarm Phase
1. Increased mental alertness
2. Increased energy consumption
3. Mobilization of energy reserves (glycogen & lipids)
4. Circulation changes:
– increased blood flow to skeletal muscles
– decreased blood flow to skin, kidneys, and
digestive organs
5. Drastic reduction in
digestion and urine
production
6. Increased sweat gland
secretion
7. Increases in blood
pressure, heart rate,
and respiratory rate
2. Resistance Phase
• Entered if stress lasts longer than few hours
• Dominant hormones are glucocorticoids
• Energy demands remain high
• Glycogen reserves nearly exhausted after several
hours of stress
• Effects of Resistance Phase
1. Mobilize remaining lipid &
protein reserves
2. Conserve glucose for neural
tissues
3. Elevate and stabilize blood
glucose concentrations
4. Conserve salts, water, and
loss of K+, H+
3. Exhaustion Phase
• Begins when homeostatic regulation breaks dow
• Failure of 1 or more organ systems will prove
fatal
• Mineral imbalance
