INTRODUCTION TO

PROGRAM LOGIC FORMULATION

Data
 Data are raw facts and figures which are
meaningless.
 Real data may be characters, numbers, or images

Ex.
patients weight is recorded as 140lb
Height of a man, suppose 65 inches, is a data
His name, suppose Jack, is a data
Characteristics of data
 Data are the raw materials of information
 Data is a distinct piece of information

 Data must be disorganized or unprocessed

Information
 Information is the simplified form of data.
 When the data is processed or organized it becomes
information.
 Approaches in Organizing data:
 Sorting
 Classifying
 Summarizing
 calculating
Ex. of Information

 Students will often take all of their notes and

handouts from their classes and organize them into
folders.
 The average height or weight of several people,
suppose 62 inch, is an information
Procedure vs. Computer Program
 Procedure is a logical sequence of actions, either
consciously or subconsciously, to carry out a certain task
or process.

 Elements of Procedure

 Action – the sequence of steps to be taken

 Order – specifies the logical arrangement of the actions
 Data – the elements operated upon by the action
 Language – the medium of communication
Computer and Program
 Computer is an electronic device designed to
manipulate data.

 Program is a set of instructions to carry out a

particular task.

 Computer program is a set of instructions which

directs computer to perform/carry out a particular
task.
Elements of Computer Program
 Operation – define the series of actions to be
followed by the computer
 Order - specifies the logical arrangement of the
operations
 Data - the elements operated upon by the
operations
 Language – the medium by which the operations
are communicated
Understanding the Programming Process

1. Problem Analysis
2. Program Design
3. Program Coding
4. Program Debugging and Testing
5. Program Implementation and Maintenance
Problem Analysis
 It is the step wherein a good definition of the problem
are considered and the program specification are
developed.

 Program specification is a document being prepared

as a part of system design which contain the following:
 Program Background
 I/O Specifications
 Program Methodology
Program Design
 It is the stage where logical sequence/ arrangement
of operations for the solution have to be planned,
consistent with the program specifications.

 Algorithm is a written series of logical instructions

which accomplish solution to a problem.
 Algorithms are developed by using any of the
program design tools such as structure charts,
flowcharts, decision table, pseudo codes, etc.
Program Design Tools
 Commonly used program design tools:

 Structure/hierarchy chart - depicts the overall

organization of a program, it shows how
segments/modules are defined and how they relate to
one another
Transaction_program

Input Process Output

Data Report

Sort Compute

Figure 1.1 Example of Structure/hierarchy chart

Program Design Tools
 Flowchart – it shows graphical presentation of an
algorithm
- also known by other names such as block diagram,
logic diagram, run diagram, flow diagram and system
chart
Start

print(“Hello”)

Stop

Figure 1.2 Example of Flowchart

Program Design Tools
 Decision table – is a table showing the actions to be
taken for different combinations of condition
(conditions and actions)

 Pseudo codes – it describes the logical flow of the

solution to a problem through the use of English–like
statements (structured English)
Program Coding
 Coding – is the process of writing the actual program steps
in the proper format for a particular programming language

 Factors that may affect the programming language used are:

 Suitability
 Integration
 Standards
 Portability
 Development speed
Program Testing and Debugging
 Testing – refers to the process of verifying the accuracy or
workability of the program

 Debugging – refer to the process of locating/identifying and

correcting the errors in the program

 Two main types of errors:

 Syntax error – occurs when the programmer has not followed the
rules of the programming language
 Logic error – occurs when running a program produces incorrect
results
Testing and Debugging
 Source code – a computer program before it is compiled

 Object code – the machine language version of the

computer program generated after the program source
code is compiled

 Compiler – is a system special software which translates

a programming language into machine language and
assembles the program to check errors upon correct
usage of programming language
Program Documentation
 It entails the preparation of a document describing
how the program is constructed, together with all
the significant resources surrounding its creation

 This phase is performed at every stage of the

program development such that an output of each
development stage is documented
Program Implementation and Maintenance

 It is the final stage of program development life

cycle which involves running the system and
updating the software as needed

 Program continually be modified or revised to cope

with changes and persistently be useful.
Evolution of Programming Languages

 “Programming languages were developed to

facilitate communication between the user and the
computer.”

 Programming Language Era

 Machine Language
 Symbolic Language
 High – level Language
 Fourth Generation Language
Machine Language
 It is the only language that computer can
understand which consists of a string of ones and
zeros (1s and 0s)

 It is machine-dependent

 Computer ready to execute it

Symbolic Language
 Assembly language/Language processor – it
enabled programmer to write instructions that used
symbols, words or abbreviations which stand for
certain operations

 Assembler – it translate the assembly language into

machine language

 It is machine-dependent
High – level Language
 Compiler/interpreter – it is a special software
which act as language translator for high-level
language

 It is machine independent

 The use of high-level language means lesser time

in writing program
High – level Programming Languages

 Some of the high-level programming languages:

 Fortran (Formula Translation)

 Started in 1954 by IBM Laboratory
 It is a scientific language used in research applications or
analysis of problems in science, engineering and sometimes in
business
 Lisp (List Processing)
 Developed in 1958
 Designed for the manipulation of symbols and patterns
 One of the most popular languages for Artificial Intelligence
High – level Programming Languages
 Cobol (Common Business Oriented Language)
 Developed in 1959 by USA Army
 Designed for administrative purposes and among its significant
features are its file processing, editing, and I/O capabilities
 PL/1 (Programming Language 1)
 Developed in the middle of 1960s by IBM
 Characterized as general-purpose and procedural applicable to
business as well as scientific applications
 Basic (Beginners All – purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)
 Developed in 1965 by John Chimney and Thomas Kurt at
Dartmouth College, New Hampshire, USA
 Described as conversational, procedure-oriented and general-
purpose programming language
High – level Programming Languages

 Prolog (Programming in Logic)

 Developed in 1972
 A logic-language based on logical rewrite systems that can
support artificial intelligence and expert system
 Pascal
 Named after Blaise Pascal, a brilliant 17 th century
mathematician
 Designed by Niklaus Wirth at the Institute fur Informatik in
Zurich (1971)
 Intended as an instructional language
 RPG (Report Program Generator)
 Designed for programming business-oriented reports
High – level Programming Languages

 ADA
 Named after Lady Ada Byron
 Conceptualized in 1974 by the US Department of Defense for
military applications
 C (Successor to B)
 Designed by Dennis Ritchie during 1969 to 1971
 One of the most powerful languages at all times which is very
well structured, powerful, portable, and flexible
 Smalltalk
 Developed at Xerox Palo Alto Research Center in 1972
 An extreme object oriented language
High – level Programming Languages

 C++(C + 1 in the C language)

 Developed in 1985 at AT&T Bell Laboratory by Bjarne
Stroustrup
 One of the most popular object-oriented languages
 Java
 Developed in 1994 by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems
 Combination of C++ and Smalltalk, developed to be as
portable as possible
Fourth Generation Language
 It aims to make programming easier even to non-
technical people

 Three categories of Fourth Generation Language:

 Database and Query Languages
 Natural Languages
 Intelligent Languages