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PHENOMENOLOGY

The document discusses three qualitative research methods: phenomenology, grounded theory, and ethnography. Phenomenology seeks to understand peoples' experiences of phenomena through in-depth interviews. Grounded theory is a systematic methodology involving discovering theory through data analysis. Ethnography involves observing cultural groups in natural settings through participant observation and interviews to understand their beliefs and practices.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
100 views54 pages

PHENOMENOLOGY

The document discusses three qualitative research methods: phenomenology, grounded theory, and ethnography. Phenomenology seeks to understand peoples' experiences of phenomena through in-depth interviews. Grounded theory is a systematic methodology involving discovering theory through data analysis. Ethnography involves observing cultural groups in natural settings through participant observation and interviews to understand their beliefs and practices.

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srimalathi
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© © All Rights Reserved
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PHENOMENOLOGY,

GROUNDED THEORY AND


ETHNOGRAPTHY
Miss. Srimalathi R
1st yr MSc Nursing
PSG College of Nursing
DEFINITION

• “ the qualitative research is a research strategy


that indicates the relationship between theory
and research and usually emphazies on how
theories were generated.”
-Bryman and Bell (2007)
DEFINITION
• Qualitative research is described as “… an
interpretive naturalistic approach to the world.
This means that qualitative researchers study
things in their natural settings, attempting to
make sense of or interpret phenomena in terms
of the meanings people bring to them.”
- Denzin and Lincoln (2005)
CHARACTERISTICS OF
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

• Emerge as study advances

• Flexible and elastic

• Multiple strategy of data collection


• Holistic
CHARACTERISTICS OF
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

• Researcher as instruments

• Ongoing data analysis

• Intensive involvement of researcher


DEFINITION
“A phenomenological study…is one that
focused on descriptions of what people
experience and how it is that they experience
what they experience. One can employ a
general phenomenological perspective to
elucidate the importance of using methods that
capture people's experience of the world
without conducting a phenomenological study
that focuses on the essence of shared
experience.”
-Patton (1990)
History
• Edmund Husserl (1859–1938), the founder of
phenomenology
• The term "phenomenology" is derived from the
Greek "phainomenon", meaning "appearance".
Hence it is the study of appearances.
• The term was first officially introduced
by Johann Heinrich Lambert (1728 - 1777) in
the 18th Century, and was subsequently used by 
Immanuel Kant and Johann Gottlieb Fichte, and
especially by G. W. F. Hegel in
his "Phenomenology of Spirit"of 1807.
• Phenomenology, as it is known today, however, is
essentially the vision of one man, Edmund Husserl,
which he launched in his "Logical Investigations" of
1901, although credit should also be given to the
pioneering work on intentionality by Husserl's
teacher, the German philosopher and
psychologist Franz Brentano (1838 - 1917) and his
colleague, Carl Stumpf (1848 - 1936).
CHARACTERISTICS OF
PHENOMENOLOGY
Main characteristics of phenomenology research:

• It seeks to understand how people experience a

particular situation or phenomenon.

• It is conducted primarily through in-depth

conversations and interviews; however, some studies

may collect data from diaries, drawings, or

observation.
Cont.,
• Small samples sizes, often 10 or less
participants, are common in phenomenological
studies.
• Interview questions are open-ended to allow
the participants to fully describe the
experience from their own view point.
Cont.,
• Phenomenology is centered on the participants’

experiences with no regard to social or cultural

norms, traditions, or preconceived ideas about the

experience.

• It focuses on these four aspects of a lived

experience:  lived spaced, lived body, lived time,

and lived human relations.


Cont.,

• Data collected is qualitative and analysis


includes an attempt to identify themes or make
generalizations regarding how a particular
phenomenon is actually perceived or
experienced.
PROCEDURE FOR CONDUCTING
PHENOMENOLOGICAL
RESEARCH
Determine if the research is best examined using
a phenomenological research or not.

Individuals‘ common or shared


experience of a phenomenon.

Develop practice or policies.


Develop a deeper understanding
about the features of the
phenomenon.
Data collected from the
individuals who have
experienced the phenomenon.

Mainly used:
In-depth interview and multiple
interview.

Other research tools:


Observation, oral or written reports,
journals, music, poetry, etc.
ADVANTAGES OF PHENOMENOLOGY

• Can look at change process over time.

• Help to understand people’s meaning.

• Contribute to the development of new theories.


• Gather data which is seen as natural rather
than artificial.
DISADVANTAGES OF
PHENOMENOLOGY

• Data gathering can take up a great deal of time and


resources.
• The analysis and interpretation of data may be difficult.

• May be harder than positivist approach to control pace,


progress and end points.
• Policy- makers may give low credibility to a
phenomenological.
Grounded theory…

• Grounded theory method (GT) is a systematic


methodology in the social sciences involving the
discovery of theory through the analysis of data.
• Grounded Theory is the most common, widely
used, and populer analytic technic in
qualitative analysis
History………….
 Two sociologists, Barney G. Glaser and
Anselm L Strauss, developed grounded
theory in the late 1960s.

 Their collaboration in research on dying


hospital patients led them to write the book
Awareness of Dying. In this research they
developed the constant comparative method,
later known as Grounded Theory Method.
Glaser and Strauss developed a pioneering
book that expounded in detail on their
grounded theory procedures, The Discovery
of Grounded Theory(1967).
PROCESS OF GROUNDED THEORY
ADVANTAGES OF GROUNDED
THEORY
DISADVANTAGES OF GROUNDED
THEORY
MEANING

• Ethnographic studies are involved in collection and


analysis of data about cultural groups.
• Ethnography is the method of conducting enquiry of a
life process by studying individuals in natural setting
• Includes both anthropology and historical forms of
reseach.
Ethnography in Nursing
• In health care it provides access to health
beliefs and health care practices in a particular
cultural group
• In Nursing, several qualitative nursing
phenomena are studied by using ethnographic
research.
• Madeleine Leininger has coined the word
ethno- nursing research.
DEFINITION

• Hammersley (2006) states that ethnography is


a study at first hand about what people do and
say in a particular context.
DEFINITION
• Is a method of field observation or observation
of behaviour in natural setting. Participant
observation, conversation and use of informants
to study cultural and social characteristics of
primitive people, whose numbers are small and
who are geographically and culturally isolated.
Cultural anthropology/ Naturalistic inquiry
-Ray and Mandal (2011)
Ethnography in Nursing

• “The study and analysis of the local


indigenous people’s view point, beliefs and
practices about the nursing care and process of
designed culture.”
- Madeleine Leininger
CHARACTERISTICS OF
ETHNOGRAPHY
• First-hand observation and participant
observation.
• Researchers should stay inside a community of

• people being studied for a period of time


• Long-term involvement and observation are
considered necessary to understand the complexity
of people’s beliefs, attitudes and behaviours.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
ETHNOGRAPHY

• Researcher creates social relationship with


participants.
• Ethnographers play important role as research
instrument
•Ethnography involves naturalistic observation
•Ethnography is an electric approach
TYPES OF ETHNOGRAPHY

Macro- • It is the study of broadly


ethnography defined culture.

• It is the study of more


Micro-
narrow aspects of the
ethnography
culture.
STEPS IN ETHNOGRAPHIC
RESEARACH
Spradley (1980) identified the sequence of steps making up the
methodology of ethnographic research:

• 1. Selecting an Ethnographic Project. The scope of these


projects can vary greatly, from studying a whole complex
society to a single social situation or institution. The beginner
would be wise to restrict the scope of his or her project to a
single social situation so that it can be completed in a
reasonable time. A social situation always has three
components: a place, actors, and activities.
Steps cont.,
2. Asking Ethnographic Questions. The
researcher needs to have questions in mind
that will guide what he or she sees and hears
and the collection of data.
Steps cont.,
3. Collecting Ethnographic Data. The researcher
does fieldwork to find out the activities of the
people, the physical characteristics of the situation,
and what it feels like to be part of the situation. This
step generally begins with an overview comprising
broad descriptive observations. Then, after looking
at the data, you move on to more focused
observations. Here you use participant observation,
in-depth interviews, and so on to gather data.
Steps cont.,

4. Making an Ethnographic Record. This step


includes taking field notes and photographs,
making maps, and using any other
appropriate means to record the observations.
Steps cont.,

5. Analyzing Ethnographic Data. The


fieldwork is always followed by data
analysis, which leads to new questions and
new hypotheses, more data collection, and
field notes, and more analysis. The cycle
continues until the project is completed.
Steps cont.,

6. Writing the Ethnography: The


ethnography should be written so that
the culture or group is brought to life,
making readers feel they understand
the people and their way of life.
PATTERNS OF DATA COLLECTION
IN ETHNOGRAPHY

 Emic Data is information supplied by


participants in a study. Emic often refers to
first-order concepts, such as local language,
concepts, and ways of expression used by
members in a cultural-sharing group
(Schwandt, 2001)
PATTERNS OF DATA COLLECTION
IN ETHNOGRAPHY
 Etic Data is information representing the
ethnographers‘ interpretation of the participants’
perspectives. Etic typically refers to second-order
concepts, such as the language used by the social
scientist or educator, to refer to the same phenomena
mentioned by the participants (Schwandt, 2001).
PATTERNS OF DATA COLLECTION
IN ETHNOGRAPHY
• Negotiation Data consists of information that the
participant and the researcher agree to use in a study.
Negotiation occurs at different stages in research, such
as agreeing to entry procedures for a research site,
mutually respecting individuals at the site, and
developing a plan for giving back or reciprocating
with the individuals.
ADVANTAGES OF
ETHNOGRAPHY:
 Ethnographer can participate in people’s daily lives
for an extended period of time, watching what
happens, listening to what is said, asking
questions, in fact collecting whatever data available.
 The external validity of ethnographic study is
generally high
ADVANTAGES OF
ETHNOGRAPHY:
 Ethnographic fieldwork provides the best
opportunity to collect current, reliable,
complete and specific data to answer the
relevant.
 It is also considered as the best source of
data for comparative study and analysis.
DISADVANTAGES OF
ETHNOGRAPHY:
It investigates only a few cases or one case

Findings cannot be generalized to other social

contexts.

Selecting information that relevant to thetopic of

study is depending on the researcher’s argument.


DISADVANTAGES OF
ETHNOGRAPHY:
Ethnographer need to make inferences only

from what participants do and say during

interview.

The ethnographer or their informants may

fail to maintain neutrality.

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