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Research Methodology: Mode of Data Collection & Error in Data Collection

This document discusses research methodology and data collection methods for a PhD program. It covers primary and secondary sources of data, methods for collecting primary data like interviews, focus groups, and panels. It also discusses sampling design and sample size considerations. The key methods discussed are interviews, questionnaires, observation, and sampling. Focus groups are described as a type of primary data involving 8-10 individuals discussing topics for 2 hours, moderated by a facilitator.

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Yonn Me Me Kyaw
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44 views

Research Methodology: Mode of Data Collection & Error in Data Collection

This document discusses research methodology and data collection methods for a PhD program. It covers primary and secondary sources of data, methods for collecting primary data like interviews, focus groups, and panels. It also discusses sampling design and sample size considerations. The key methods discussed are interviews, questionnaires, observation, and sampling. Focus groups are described as a type of primary data involving 8-10 individuals discussing topics for 2 hours, moderated by a facilitator.

Uploaded by

Yonn Me Me Kyaw
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY
Ph.D Program

Mode of Data Collection


&
Error in Data Collection
Sources of Data

• Data can be obtained from:


 Primary sources (primary data)
 Secondary sources (secondary data)

 Primary data refer to information obtained firsthand by the


researcher on the variables of interest for the specific purpose
of the study.

 Secondary data refer to information gathered from sources


already existing.
Dr.Sui Reng Liana
Sources of Data

• Sources of primary data:


 Individuals, focus groups, panels
 Unobtrusive sources
 Internet
• Sources of secondary data:
 Company records or archives
 Govt. publications
 Books and journals
 Newspapers, magazines etc.

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Primary Sources of Data

• Apart from individuals, focus groups can be another rich


source of primary data.
• Focus group :
 Consists of 8 to 10 individuals
 Discuss certain concepts, topics, issues or product for
about 2 hours
 Members are chosen base on their expertise or
relevance to the purpose of study
 Has a moderator

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Primary Sources of Data

• Role of the moderator:


 Introduces the topic for discussion
 Steering the discussion so that always be on track
 Elicit unstructured and spontaneous responses from group
members
o Impressions
o Interpretations
o Opinions, ideas and feelings

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Primary Sources of Data

• Advantages of focus group:


 Inexpensive
 Provide fairly dependable data within short period of time
 Subtle responses including non-verbal cues can be
important to the study
 Good for exploratory data
• Nature of data:
 Free flowing but not considered as scientific
 Content analysis provides only qualitative information
 Opinions can’t be considered as truly representative

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Primary Sources of Data

• Purpose of focus groups:


 Exploratory studies
 Making generalizations based on their information
 Conducting sample surveys
• Commonly used to answer the following questions: i.e…
 Why certain products are not doing very well?
 Why certain advertising strategies effective?
 Why certain management techniques do not work? Etc.

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Primary Sources of Data

• Video conferencing
 This can be done if several focus groups need to be
interviewed at different locations at the same time
 Discussions is live and trained moderators should be at the
various locations
• On-line focus groups
 E-mail
 Websites
 Internet chat rooms etc

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Primary Sources of DATA

• Panels
 Similar to focus groups but meets more than one time
 Very useful to study the effect certain interventions or
changes to be studied over time
 Research that uses panels is known panel study
• Two types:
 Static panels (same members serve on the panel until
completion of study)
• Advantage – offers good and sensitive measurement over
time
• Disadvantage – discontinuity might occurs
 Dynamic panels (different members from time to time)
Dr.Sui Reng Liana
Secondary Sources of Data

• Internal sources
 Company records
• Employee payroll
• Sales turnover
• Financial records
• Shareholders etc.
• External sources
 Published data sets
• Trade data etc.

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Secondary Sources of Data

• Statistical abstracts
 Population structure
 Financial databases etc.
• Govt. publications
 Census data
 Master plan etc.
• Books and periodicals
• Annual report

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Data Collection Methods
DETAILS OF STUDY MEASUREMENT

Measurement and DATA


Types of
Purpose of the Extent of researcher Measures ANALYSIS
Investigation Study setting
Study Interference
Operational definition
Items (measure)
Establishing:
P Exploration Minimal: studying events Scaling 1. Feel for
-Causal relationships Contrived
R Description As they normally occur Categorizing data
-Correlations
O Manipulation and/or Coding
Hypothesis -Group differences, Noncontrived
Control and/or simulation
B Ranks,etc.
L
E
M

S 2. Goodness
T Of data
A
T
E
M Sampling
Units of analysis
E Design Time Data-collection
(population to
N be studied) Horizon Method
T
Individuals Probability/ One-shot Interviewing 3. Hypothesis
Dyads Nonprobability (cross sectional) Questionnaire testing
Groups Observation
Organizations Sample Longitudinal Unobtrusive
Machines Size (n) methods
etc

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Data Collection Methods
Data can collected via:
Interviews
Questionnaires
Observation
Motivational techniques

Choice dependent upon:


Facilities available
Degree of accuracy required
Expertise of the researcher
Time spent
Budget
Interviewing

• Interviews could be:


 Structured or unstructured
 Face-to-face or telephone or online

• Unstructured interviews
 No planned sequence of questions
 Useful to identify the broad problem area
 Elaborate response vs monosyllabic
 Purpose to identify the variables of study that’s need
greater focus

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Interviewing

• Structured interviews:
 Has a list of predetermined questions
 Useful in collecting quantitative data
 Include the use of visuals aids (pictures, cards, diagrams,
etc.)
 Information collected are then tabulated and analyzed in
order to answer the research questions

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Interviewing

• Training of interviewers is extremely important:


 How to start
 How to pose questions
 How to motivate
 How to take notes
 How to observe non-verbal cues
 How to close an interview

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Interviewing

• Tips to follow in interviewing


Should be free from bias
 Interviewer bias
 Interviewee bias
 Situations of bias:
• Non participants (non-response bias)
• Trust level and rapport established
• Physical setting

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Sampling

 Selecting a sub-set of a whole population


 Often done for reasons of cost
 It’s less expensive to sample 1,000 television viewers
than 20 million TV viewers) and
 Practicality
 e.g. performing a crash test on every automobile

produced is impractical).
 In any case, the sampled population and the target
population should be similar to one another.
Dr.Sui Reng Liana
Sampling

• Sampling is the process of selecting a sufficient number of


elements from the population.
• The study of the sample and an understanding or its properties
or characteristics would make it possible to generalize such
properties or characteristics to the population elements.

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Sample Size

 Numerical techniques for determining sample sizes,


but suffice it to say that the larger the sample size is,
the more accurate we can expect the sample estimates
to be.

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Roscoe (1975) proposes the following rules of thumb for
determining sample size:

• Sample sizes larger than 30 and less than 500 are appropriate
for most research.

• Where samples are to be broken into subsamples


(males/females , juniors/seniors etc), a minimum sample size
of 30 for each category is necessary.

• For simple experimental research with tight experimental


controls, successful research is possible with samples as small
as 10 to 20 in size.

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Sampling Error

 Increasing the sample size will reduce this type of error.

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Non-sampling Error

 Non-sampling errors :
• more serious and are due to mistakes made in the acquisition of
data or due to the sample observations being selected improperly

• Three types of non-sampling errors:


– Errors in data acquisition,
– Nonresponse errors, and
– Selection bias
Note: increasing the sample size will not reduce this type of
error.

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Errors in Data Acquisition

 Arises from the recording of incorrect responses, due to:


 incorrect measurements being taken because of faulty equipment,
 mistakes made during transcription from primary sources,
 inaccurate recording of data due to misinterpretation of terms, or
 inaccurate responses to questions concerning sensitive issues.

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Selection Bias

Occurs when the sampling plan is such that some


members of the target population cannot possibly be
selected for inclusion in the sample.

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Getting the Data Ready for Analysis

• Data coding: assigning a number to the participants’ responses


so they can be entered into a database.

• Data Entry: after responses have been coded, they can be entered
into a database. Raw data can be entered through any software
program (e.g., SPSS)

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Editing Data

• An example of an illogical response is an outlier response. An


outlier is an observation that is substantially different from the
other observations.

• Inconsistent responses are responses that are not in harmony


with other information.

• Illegal codes are values that are not specified in the coding
instructions.

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Reliability Analysis

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Transforming Data

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Frequencies

Dr.Sui Reng Liana


Descriptive Statistics: Central Tendencies and
Dispersions

Dr.Sui Reng Liana

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