MULTIPLE ACCESS PROTOCOLS

In telecommunications and computer networks, a channel access method or

multiple access method allows several terminals connected to the same
multi-point transmission medium to transmit over it and to share its capacity.
Examples of shared physical media are wireless networks, bus networks, ring
networks, hub networks and half-duplex point-to-point links.
 A channel-access scheme is based on a multiplexing method
that allows several data streams or signals to share the same communication
channel or physical medium. Multiplexing is in this context provided by the
physical layer. Note that multiplexing also may be used in full-duplex point-
to- point communication between nodes in a switched network, which should
not be considered as multiple access.
A channel-access scheme is also based on a multiple access protocol and control
mechanism, also known as media access control (MAC). This protocol deals with
issues such as addressing, assigning multiplex channels to different users, and
avoiding collisions.

 
 Cryptography
• Cryptography is a method of protecting
information and communications through the
use of codes, so that only those for whom the
information is intended can read and process
it. The prefix "crypt-" means "hidden" or
"vault" -- and the suffix "-graphy" stands for
"writing."
 MULTIPLE ACCESS PROTOCOLS

• The MAC-layer is a sub-layer in Layer 2 (Data Link Layer) of

the OSI model and a component of the Link Layer of the
TCP/IP model. Let us see the protocols that support multiple
access:
• ALOHA: 
• Aloha, also called the Aloha method, refers to a simple
communications scheme in which each source (transmitter) in
a network sends data whenever there is a frame to send.
• If the frame successfully reaches the destination (receiver),
the next frame is sent. If the frame fails to be received at the
destination, it is sent again.
• This protocol was originally developed at the University of
Hawaii for use with satellite communication systems in the
Pacific.
 ALOHA
In a wireless broadcast system or a half-duplex two-
way link, Aloha works perfectly.
But as networks become more complex, for example
in an Ethernet system involving multiple sources and
destinations in which data travels many paths at once,
trouble occurs because data frames collide (conflict).
The heavier the communications volume, the worse
the collision problems become.
The result is degradation of system efficiency, because
when two frames collide, the data contained in both
frames is lost.
 ALOHA…
• To minimize the number of collisions, thereby
optimizing network efficiency and increasing
the number of subscribers that can use a given
network, a scheme called slotted Aloha was
developed.
 ALOHA…
.Pure Aloha- It allows the stations to transmit data at any time whenever
they want.
•After transmitting the data packet, station waits for some time. 
Then, following 2 cases are possible-
 Case-01:
•Transmitting station receives an acknowledgement from the receiving
station.
•In this case, transmitting station assumes that the transmission is
successful.
Case-02:
•Transmitting station does not receive any acknowledgement within
specified time from the receiving station.
•In this case, transmitting station assumes that the transmission is
unsuccessful.
 ALOHA…
• 2. Slotted Aloha-
• Slotted Aloha divides the time of shared channel
into discrete intervals called as time slots.
• Any station can transmit its data in any time slot.
• The only condition is that station must start its
transmission from the beginning of the time slot.
• If the beginning of the slot is missed, then station
has to wait until the beginning of the next time slot.
• A collision may occur if two or more stations try to
transmit data at the beginning of the same time slot.
 CARRIER SENSE MULTIPLE ACCESS: CSMA

• Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

is a probabilistic Media Access Control (MAC)
protocol in which a node verifies the absence of
other traffic before transmitting on a shared
transmission medium, such as an electrical bus,
or a band of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• "Carrier Sense" describes the fact
that a transmitter uses feedback from a
receiver that detects a carrier wave before trying
to send.
 CSMA….
• That is, it tries to detect the presence of an
encoded signal from another station before
attempting to transmit. If a carrier is sensed, the
station waits for the transmission in progress to
finish before initiating its own transmission.
• "Multiple Access" describes the fact that multiple
stations send and receive on the medium.
Transmissions by one node are generally received
by all other stations using the medium.
 CSMA..
• Collision avoidance is used to improve the performance of CSMA.
• If the channel is sensed busy before transmission then the transmission is deferred
for a "random" interval. This reduces the probability of collisions on the channel.
• Types of CSMA
• 1-persistent CSMA
• When the sender (station) is ready to transmit data, it checks if the physical
medium is busy. If so, it senses the medium continually until it becomes idle, and
then it transmits a piece of data (a frame). In case of a collision, the sender
waits for a random period of time and attempts to transmit again.
•  p-persistent CSMA
• When the sender is ready to send data, it checks continually if the medium is busy.
If the medium becomes idle, the sender transmits a frame with a probability p. If
the station chooses not to transmit (the probability of this event is 1-p), the sender
waits until the next available time slot and transmits again with the same
probability p. This process repeats until the frame is sent or some other sender
stops transmitting. In the latter case the sender monitors the channel, and when
idle, transmits with a probability p, and so on.
•  
 CSMA..
• o-persistent CSMA
• Each station is assigned a transmission order by a supervisor station. When
medium goes idle, stations wait for their time slot in accordance with their
assigned transmission order. The station assigned to transmit first transmits
immediately. The station assigned to transmit second waits one time slot (but
by that time the first station has already started transmitting). Stations
monitor the medium for transmissions from other stations and update their
assigned order with each detected transmission (i.e. they move one position
closer to the front of the queue).
 CSMA
•  Protocol modifications/variations:
• Carrier Sense Multiple Access With Collision
• Detection (CSMA/CD) is a modification of CSMA. CSMA/CD
is used to improve CSMA performance by terminating
transmission as soon as a collision is detected, and
reducing the probability of a second collision on retry.
• Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance (CSMA/CA) is a modification of CSMA. Collision
avoidance is used to improve the performance of CSMA by
attempting to be less "greedy" on the channel. If the
channel is sensed busy before transmission then the
transmission is deferred for a "random" interval. This
reduces the probability of collisions on the channel.
 What is Ethernet
• It is a system for connecting a number of computer
systems to form a local area network, with protocols to
control the passing of information and to avoid
simultaneous transmission by two or more systems. OR
• Ethernet is a way of connecting computers together in
a local area network or LAN. It has been the most
widely used method of linking computers together in
LANs since the 1990s. The basic idea of its design is that
multiple computers have access to it and can send data
at any time.
 Ethernet…
• Ethernet is a technology that connects wired
local area networks (LANs) and enables the
device to communicate with each other
through a protocol which is the common
network language.
• An example of Ethernet is the cable system
that connects the computer network of a
small business office
 Types of Ethernet

•It is used for building a local area network. The local area network is a computer
network that interconnects a group of computers and shares the information
through cables or wires.
•Wired Ethernet Network
•The Ethernet technology mainly works with the fiber optic cables that connect
devices within a distance of 10 km. The Ethernet supports 10 Mbps.
•Wireless Ethernet
•Wireless NetworkEthernet networks can also be wireless. Rather than using
Ethernet cable to connect the computers, wireless use radio waves for two-way
communication with a wireless switch or hub. It consists of Ethernet ports,
wireless , switches and hubs.
•Types of Ethernet Networks
•There are several types of Ethernet networks, such as
•Fast Ethernet,
•Gigabit Ethernet, and
•Switch Ethernet
 Fast Ethernet…
• 1. Fast Ethernet
• Twisted pair cable. The fast Ethernet is a type of Ethernet
network that can transfer data at a rate of 100 Mbps using a
twisted-pair cable or a fiber-optic cable. The older 10 Mbps.
• Fast Ethernet is based on the proven CSMA/CD Media
Access Control (MAC) protocol, and uses existing 10BaseT
cabling. Data can move from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps without
any protocol translation or changes to the application and
networking
 2. Gigabit Ethernet

• Optic fiber cable The Gigabit Ethernet is a type of

Ethernet network capable of transferring data at a rate of
1000 Mbps based on a twisted-pair or fiber optic cable,
and it is very popular.
• The type of twisted-pair cables that support Gigabit
Ethernet is Cat 5e cable, where all the four pairs of
twisted wires of the cable are used to achieve high data
transfer rates.
• The 10 Gigabit Ethernet is a latest generation Ethernet
capable of transferring data at a rate of 10 Gbps using
twisted-pair or fiber optic cable.
 3. Switch Ethernet
• Multiple network devices in a LAN require network equipments such as
a network switch or hub. When using a network switch, a regular
network cable is used instead of a crossover cable. The crossover cable
consists of a transmission pair at one end and a receiving pair at the
other end.
• The main function of a network switch is to forward data from one
device to another device on the same network. Thus a network switch
performs this task efficiently as the data is transferred from one device
to another without affecting other devices on the same network.
• The network switch normally supports different data transfer rates. The
most common data transfer rates include 10 Mbps – 100 Mbps for fast
Ethernet, and 1000 Mbps – 10 Gbps for the latest Ethernet.
• Switch Ethernet uses star topology, which is organized around a switch.
The switch in a network uses a filtering and switching mechanism
similar to the one used by the gateways, in which these techniques
have been in use for a long time.
Switch Ethernet..
 Cryptography
• Cryptography is a method of protecting information and
communications through the use of codes, so that only
those for whom the information is intended can read
and process it. The prefix "crypt-" means "hidden" or
"vault" -- and the suffix "-graphy" stands for "writing.“
• Modern cryptography uses sophisticated mathematical
equations (algorithms) and secret keys to encrypt and
decrypt data. Today, cryptography is used to provide
secrecy and integrity to our data, and both
authentication to our communications.
 Objectives of Cryptography
• Modern cryptography concerns itself with the
following objectives:
• Confidentiality: the information cannot be
understood by anyone for whom it was
unintended
• Integrity: the information cannot be altered in
storage or between sender and receiver without
the alteration being detected
• Authentication: the sender and receiver can
confirm each other's identity and the
origin/destination of the information
 Encryption and Decryption
• Encryption is the process of converting normal message
(plaintext) into meaningless message (Ciphertext).
Whereas Decryption is the process of converting
meaningless message (Ciphertext) into its original form
(Plaintext)
 Encryption and Decryption Difference
• 1. Encryption is the process of converting normal message into
meaningless message. While decryption is the process of
converting meaningless message into its original form.
• 2. Encryption is the process which take place at sender’s end.
While decryption is the process which take place at receiver’s
end.
• 3. Its major task is to convert the plain text into cipher text. While
its main task is to convert the cipher text into plain text.
• 4. Any message can be encrypted with either secret key or public
key. Whereas the encrypted message can be decrypted with
either secret key or private key.
• 5. In encryption process, sender sends the data to receiver after
encrypted it. Whereas in decryption process, receiver receives
the information(Cipher text) and convert into plain text.
Private and Public Key
 Digital Signatures

• Digital signature technology allows the recipient of given

signed message to verify its real origin and its integrity.
The process of digital signature verification is purposed to
as certain if a given message has been signed by the
private key that corresponds to a given public key.
• Digitally signed messages may be anything represent able
as a bit string: examples include electronic mail, contracts,
or a message sent via some other cryptographic protocol.
• proof that the document came from you and no one has
tampered with it since you sent it.
• developer distributing software online, you may need to
reassure your customers that your executables really are
from you.
 SSL
• Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) was the most widely
deployed cryptographic protocol to provide security over
internet communications before it was preceded by TLS
(Transport Layer Security) in 1999. Despite the
deprecation of the SSL protocol and the adoption of TLS
in its place, most people still refer to this type of
technology as ‘SSL’.
• SSL provides a secure channel between two machines or
devices operating over the internet or an internal network.
• One common example is when SSL is used to secure
communication between a web browser and a web server.
This turns a website's address from HTTP to HTTPS, the
‘S’ standing for ‘secure’.
 SSL Certificate
• SSL Certificates are small data files that
digitally bind a cryptographic key to an
organization’s details.
• When installed on a web server, it activates the
padlock and the https protocol and allows secure
connections from a web server to a browser.
• SSL is used to secure credit card transactions,
data transfer and logins, and more recently is
becoming the norm when securing browsing of
social media sites.
 Firewall
• A firewall is a system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from
a private network. You can implement a firewall in either hardware or
software form, or a combination of both.
• Firewalls prevent unauthorized internet users from accessing private
networks connected to the internet, especially intranets.
• There are three basic types of firewalls that are used by companies to
protect their data & devices viz. Packet Filters, Stateful Inspection and
Proxy Server Firewalls.
• Packet Filters
• Packet Filter Firewall controls the network access by analyzing the
outgoing and incoming packets. It lets a packet pass or block its way by
comparing it with pre-established criteria like allowed IP addresses,
packet type, port number, etc.
• Packet filtering is suitable for small networks but gets complex when
implemented to larger networks. It is to be noted that these types of
firewalls cannot prevent all types of attacks. They can not tackle the
attacks that use application layers vulnerabilities.
 Type of Firewall..
• Stateful Packet Inspection (SPI): is also called dynamic packet
filtering, is a powerful firewall architecture which examines traffic
streams from end to end. These smart and fast firewalls use an
intelligent way to ward off the unauthorized traffic by analyzing the
packet headers and inspecting the state of the packets along with
providing proxy services. These firewalls works at the network
layer in the OSI model and are more secured than the basic packet
filtering firewalls.
• Proxy Server Firewalls: Also called the application level gateways,
these are the most secured type of firewalls that effectively protect
the network resources by filtering messages at the application
layer. Proxy firewalls mask IP address and limit traffic types.
Provide a complete and protocol-aware security analysis for the
protocols they support.
• Proxy Servers offers the best Internet experience and results in the
network performance improvements.
 PGP
• Pretty Good Privacy or PGP is a popular program used
to encrypt and decrypt email over the Internet, as well
as authenticate messages with digital signatures and
encrypted stored files.
OR
• www.pgp.com/ Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) is an
encryption program that provides cryptographic
privacy and authentication for data communication.
PGP is used for:
• signing, encrypting, and decrypting texts, e-mails,
files, directories, and whole disk partitions.
• to increase the security of e-mail communications
 S/MIME
• S/MIME, or Secure/Multipurpose Internet Mail
Extensions, is a technology that allows to encrypt your
emails.
• It also allows to digitally sign emails to identify or verify
correct/authorised sender of the message, making it an
effective weapon against many phishing attacks out there.
• S/MIME is based on asymmetric cryptography to protect
our emails from unwanted access.
• It also allows you to digitally sign your emails to verify you
as the legitimate sender of the message, making it an
effective weapon against many phishing attacks out there.