ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONINCS

MEASUREMENTS
The advancement of Science & Technology is dependent upon a parallel
progress in measurement techniques, the reason for this is obvious.
As Science & Technology move ahead, new phenomena and relationships are
discovered and these advances make a new types of measurements
imperative(crucial part or vital importance)
New discoveries are not of any practical utility unless the results are backed by
actual measurements.
The measurements, no doubt, confirm the validity of a hypothesis but also add
to its understanding.
This results in an unending chain which leads to new discoveries that require
more, new and sophisticated measurement techniques. Hence modern Science &
Technology are associated with sophisticated methods of measurement.
There are two major functions of all branches of engineering
i) Design of equipment and process
ii) Proper operation and maintenance of equipment
Both these require measurements. This is because proper and economical
design, operation and maintenance require a feedback of information.
Measurement play a vital or significant role in achieving goals and objectives
of Engineering because of the feedback information
MODULE 1
PRINCIPLES OF ANALOG
INSTRUMENTS
Errors in Measurement
Difference between Indicating & Integrating Instruments
Moving coil & Moving iron
Ammeter & Voltmeter
Instrument transformer
Dynamometer type wattmeter
Power factor meters
DC Permanent magnet moving coil type galvanometer
Ballistic Galvanometer
AC Vibration Galvanometer
1 Errors in Measurements
Measurements done in laboratory or at some other place always
involve error. No measurement is free from error.
If the precision of the equipment is adequate, no matter what its
accuracy is, a discrepancy will always be observed between two
measured results.
Since errors are must in any measurements, it is imperative to
interpret the results of a quantitave measurement in an intelligent
manner.
An understanding and thorough evaluation of errors is essential.
No measurement that can be made with perfect accuracy but it is
important to find out what accuracy actually is and how different
errors have entered into the measurement.
A study of error is a first step in finding ways to reduce them.
Errors may arise from different sources and are usually classified
as under
GROSS ERRORS
Human made errors
Mistake normally lies with the experimenter
Great care should be taken
One should anticipate and correct them

SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
1)Instrumental errors
2)Environmental errors
3)Observational errors

RANDOM ERRORS
Errors due to a multitude of small factors
Fluctuation of one measurment to another
Disturbances which are unaware
1.1 GROSS ERRORS
This class of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading instruments,
recording and calculating measurement results.
The responsibility of mistakes mainly lies with the experimenter. The
experimenter may grossly misread the scale.
For eg:
He may due to oversight, read the temp as 31.5'C while the actual reading
may be 21.5'C.He may transpose the reading while recording it, he made read
25.8'C and record 28.5'C instead.
Some gross errors are easily detected while some are difficult if their is a
vast differences.
Gross errors may be of any amount and therefore their mathematical analysis
is impossible.
However they can be avoided by adapting two means
1) Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.
2) Two, three or even more readings should be taken for the quantity under
measurement. These readings should be taken preferably by different
experimenters and reading should be taken at a different reading point so as to
avoid re-reading. This is advisable so that no gross error is committed.
1.2 SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
These types of errors are divided into 3 categories

Instrumental Errors
i)Inherent shortcomings of instruments
ii)Misuse of the instruments
iii)Loading effects of instruments

Environmental Errors
i)Errors are due to conditions external to the
Measuring device including the atmospheric
Conditions such as temperature,pressure,humidity
Dust,vibrations&external magnetic fields

Observational Errors
Errors due to Parallax
(Parallax is a displacement or difference in the apparent position
Of an object viewed along two different lines of sight)
1.2a INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS

i) Inherent shortcomings of instruments

 These errors are inherent in instruments because of their mechanical

structure due to construction, calibration or operation of the instrument
or measuring devices which may cause the instrument to read too low
or to high.
 Errors may be caused because of friction, hysteresis or even gear
backlash.
These errors can be reduced to a great extent by using the
following methods
i) Procedure of measurement must be carefully planned.
Substitution methods or calibration against standards may be used.
ii) Correction factors should be applied after determining the
instrumental errors,
iii) The instrument may be re-calibrated
ii) Misuse of the Instruments

Errors caused in measurements are to the fault of the operator than that of the
instrument.

A good instrument used in ignorant(unintelligent) way may give error results

Improper practice may not cause a permanent damage to the instrument but
all the same they cause errors,

Certain ill practices like using the instrument contrary to manufacturer's

instructions and specifications which in addition to producing errors cause
permanent damage to the instrument as a result of overloading & overheating
that may ultimately result in failure of the instrument and sometimes system
itself
iii) Loading effects of Instruments

One of the most common errors committed by the beginners, is the improper
use of an instrument for measurement work.

For eg: A well calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading voltage reading
when connected across a high resistance circuit.

a)Errors caused by loading effects can be avoided by using instruments

intelligently
b)In planning any measurement, the loading effect of instrument should be
considered and proper corrections for these effects should be made
c)Suitable instruments should be used
d)Preferably those methods should be used which is results in negligible or no
loading effects.
1.2b ENVIROMENTAL ERRORS

Errors due to conditions external to the measuring device including the area of
surrounding the instrument.
Effects of temperature pressure,humidity,dust,vibrations or external magnetic or
electrostatic fields.

The corrective measures employed to eliminate these undesirable effects are:

Arrangements should be made to keep the conditions as nearly & as constant as

possible.

Using equipment which is immune to these effects.

Employing techniques which eliminate the effects of these disturbances.
In case it is suspected that external magnetic or electrostatic fields effect the
readings of the instruments, magnetic or electrostatic shields may be provided.

Applying computed corrections

1.2c OBSERVATIONAL ERRORS

Many sources of observational errors exist as an, example the pointer of

voltmeter rests slightly above the surface of the scale. Thus an error on account
of Parallax will be incurred unless the line of vision of the observer is exactly
above the pointer.

 Modern electrical instruments have digital display of output which

completely eliminates the errors on account of human observational.
1.3 RANDOM ERRORS

Errors due to a multitude of small factors which change or fluctuate from one
measurement to another.

The factors influencing the measurement and disturbances which we are unaware
are lumped together are called 'Random errors or Residual errors'

For eg: A spring balance might show variations in measurement due to fluctuations
in temperature, condition of loading & unloading.

 Mechanical vibrations: When the instrument is used in vibrating place the parts of
the instrument start vibrating giving faulty readings.
 Backlash in the movement: This is the error due to time lag between the
application of the parameter and the instrument actually showing reading. Even
though some value of the parameter changes, there is no indication.
 Hysteresis of the elastic members: Over the period of time the elastic members
tend to loose some elasticity leading to errors in the indicated value of the instrument.
 Finite scale divisions: The scale marking can be made only up to certain limits and
they not be hundred percent accurate.
CHARACTERSTICS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Precision: Precision is defined by the degree of exactness

for which an instrument is designed or intended to perform.

Repeatability: It is the closeness of agreement among a

number of consecutive measurements of the output for the
same value of the input, under the same operating
conditions.

Reproducibility: It is the closeness of agreement among

repeated measurements of the output for the same value of
the input, made under the same operating conditions over a
period of time.

Drift: It is an undesired change or a gradual variation in

output over a period of time that is unrelated to changes in
input and operating conditions.
Span: If in a measuring instrument the highest point
of calibration is y units and the lowest point x units.
Then the instrument range y units
The instrument span is given by
Span=(x-y)units
Sensitivity: Sensitivity can be defined as the ratio of
a change in output to the change in input which causes
it.
Resolution: The smallest increment in input (the
quantity being measured) which can be detected with
certainty by an instrument is its resolution.
Dead zone: Dead zone is the largest range of values
of a measured variable to which the instrument does
not respond.
 Types of Instruments
Absolute Instruments:
Absolute instruments are those which give the value of
the electrical quantity to be measured, in terms of the
constant of the instruments and their deflection only, e.g.
tangent galvanometer.
Secondary Instruments:
Secondary instruments are those which have been
precalibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument.
The value of the electrical quantity to be measured in these
instruments can be determined from the deflection of the
instrument.
Without calibration of such an instrument, the deflection
is meaningless.
Different types of secondary instruments:
1)Indicating
2)Integrating
3)Recording
1)Indicating:
 Indicating instruments are those which indicate the
instantaneous value of the electrical quantity being measured, at the
time at which it is being measured.
 Their indications are given by pointers moving over calibrated
dials(scale), e.g. ammeters, voltmeters and watt-meters.
 2)Integratin
g:
Integrating instruments are those which measure and
register the total quantity of electricity (in ampere-hour)
or the total amount of electrical energy(in watt-hours or
kilowatt-hours) supplied to a circuit over a period of time,
e.g. ampere-hour meters, energy meters.

AMPERE HOUR
METER

ODOMETER
ENERGY
METER
3)Recording:
 Recording instruments are those which give a continuous record of
variations of the electrical quantity over a selected period of time.
The moving system of the instrument carries an inked pen which rests
tightly on a graph chart. E.g. recording voltmeters used in supply
station.
 Essentials of Indicating Instruments
Deflecting Torque(Td):
It is the torque which deflects the pointer on a calibrated scale according to the
electrical quantity passing through the instrument. The deflecting torque causes the
moving system and hence the pointer attached to it to move from zero position to
indicate on a graduated scale the value of electrical quantity being measured.

Controlling Torque(Tc):
It is the torque which controls the movement of the pointer on a particular scale
according to the quantity of electricity passing through it. If deflecting torque were
acting alone, the pointer would continue to move indefinitely and would swing
over to the maximum deflected position irrespective of the magnitude of current
(or voltage or power) to be measured.

SPRING CONTROL
GRAVITY CONTROL
1) Spring Control:
In the spring control method, a hair-spring, usually of
phosphor-bronze, attached to the moving system is used. With
the deflection of the pointer, the spring is twisted in the
opposite direction. This twist in the spring produces a restoring
torque which is directly proportional to the angle of deflection of
the moving system. The pointer comes to a position of rest (or
equilibrium) when the deflecting torque (Td) and controlling
torque (Tc) are equal.
Tc ∞ θ
To give a controlling torque which is directly proportional to the
angle of deflection of the moving system, the number of turns
of the spring should be fairly large so that the deformation per
unit length is small. The stress in the spring must be limited to
such a value that there is no permanent set. Springs are made
of materials which are
Non magnetic
Not subject to much fatigue
Low in specific resistance
Have low temperature coefficient of resistance.
2) Gravity Control:
Gravity control is obtained by attaching a small weight to the moving system
in such a way that it produces a restoring or controlling torque when the system is
deflected.
Tc ∞ Sinθ
Thus, controlling torque in a gravity control system is proportional to the sine of the
angle of deflection.
The degree of control is adjusted by screwing the weight up or down on the
carrying system.
Damping Torque:
If the moving system is acted upon by deflecting and controlling torques alone, then
pointer, due to inertia, will oscillate about its final deflected position for quite sometime
before coming to rest. This is often undesirable because it makes difficult to obtain quick
and accurate readings. In order to avoid these oscillations of the pointer and to bring it
quickly to its final deflected position, a damping torque is provided in the indicating
instruments.
There are three types of damping:
Air friction damping:
air friction damping uses either aluminium piston or vane, which is attached to or mounted
on the moving system and moves in an air chamber at one end.
Fluid friction damping:
In fluid friction damping, a light vane (attached to the moving system) is dipped into a pot
of damping oil. The fluid produces the necessary opposing (or damping) force to the vane.
The vane should be completely submerged in the oil.
The disadvantage of this type of damping is that it can only be used in the vertical position.
Eddy Current Damping:
Eddy-current damping uses a conducting material which moves in a magnetic field so as
to cut through the lines of force, thus setting up eddy currents. Force always exists between
the eddy current and magnetic field which is always opposite to the direction of motion.
This is most efficient type of damping and is largely used in permanent magnet moving coil
instruments.
Types of indicating instruments

MOVING COIL
INSTRUMENT

MOVING IRON INSTRUMENT

Attraction type instrument
Repulsion type instrument
 PMMC
PRINCIPLE:
This type of instrument based on the principle that when a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a force acts on the
conductor, which tends to move it to one side and out of the field.
CONSTRUCTION OF PMMC
It consists of a powerful U-shaped
permanent magnet made of Alnico, and soft
PMMC
iron pole pieces bored out cylindrically.
A soft iron core is fixed between the
magnetic poles whose functions are
i) to make the field uniform, and
ii) to decrease the reluctance of the air path
between the poles and hence increase the
magnetic flux.
Surrounding the core is a rectangular coil of
many turns wound on a light aluminium or
copper frame, supported by delicate bearings.
A light pointer fixed to the frame moves on
the calibrated scale according to the amount of
electricity passed through the coil.
The aluminium frame provides not only
support for the coil but also a damping torque
by the eddy currents induce in it.
WORKING:
When the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure
current or voltage, the operating current flows through the coil.
Since the coil is carrying current and is placed in the magnetic
field of the permanent magnet , a mechanical force acts on it. As
a result , the pointer attached to the moving system moves in a
clockwise direction over the graduated scale to indicate the
value of current or voltage being measured.
If the current in the coil is reversed, the deflecting torque also
be reversed since the direction of the permanent magnet is
same. Consequently, the pointer will try to deflect below zero.
Deflection in this direction is prevented by a spring “stop”. Since
the deflecting torque reverses with the reversal of current in the
coil, such instrument can be used to measure direct current and
voltage only.
ADVANTAGE:
Low power consumption.
Uniform scale extendable over an arc of 270º or so.
High torque weight ratio.
No hysteresis loss.
Very effective and efficient eddy current damping.
Not effected much by stray and magnetic fields due to strong operating
field.

DISADVANTAGE:
Costliercompared to moving iron instruments, due to delicate
construction and accurate machining and assembly of various parts.
Some error arise due to the ageing of control springs and the permanent
magnet.
Use limited to d.c. only.
Scale length of meter can be increased from 120º and 240º or even
270º or 300º.

APPLICATION:
PMMC instruments can be used as dc ammeter. And its range can be
increased by using a large number of turns in parallel with the
instrument.
The range of this instrument, when used as a dc voltmeter, can be
increased by using a high resistance in series with it.
Moving Iron instruments

Moving Iron instruments depend for their action

upon the magnetic effect of current, and are
widely used as indicating instruments. In this
type of instrument , the coil is stationery and the
deflection is caused by a soft-iron piece moving
in the field produced by the coil.
There are two types of moving iron instruments:
i)Attraction type
ii)Repulsion type
Attraction type:
Construction:
Fig shows the
constructional details of
an attraction type MI
instrument. It consists of
a cylindrical coil or
solenoid which is kept
fixed. An oval-shaped
soft-iron piece. The
controlling torque is
provided by an
aluminium vane,
attached to the spindle,
which moves in a closed
air chamber.
Working:
When the instrument is connected in the circuit to
measure current or voltage, the operating current
flowing through the coil sets up a magnetic field. In
other words, the coil behaves like a magnet and
therefore it attracts the soft iron piece towards it. The
result is that the pointer attached to the moving
system moves from zero position. The pointer will
come to rest at a position where deflecting torque is
equal to the controlling torque. If current in the coil is
reversed, the direction of magnetic field also
reverses and so does the magnetism produce in the
soft iron piece. Hence, the direction of the deflecting
torque remains unchanged. For this reason, such
instruments can be used for both d.c. and a.c.
measurements.
Repulsion type
Construction:
Fig shows the constructional details of
repulsion type moving-iron instrument. It
consists of two soft-iron pieces or vanes
surrounded by a fixed cylindrical hollow
coil which carries the operating current.
One of these vanes is fixed and the other
is free to move. The movable vane is
cylindrical shape and is mounted axially
on a spindle to which a pointer is
attached. The fixed vane, which is wedge-
shaped and has a larger radius, is attached
to the stationery coil. The controlling
torque is provided by one spiral spring at
the top of the instrument. It may be noted
that in this instrument, springs do not
provide the electrical connections.
Damping is provided by air friction due to
the motion of a piston in an air chamber.
Working:
When current to be measured or current proportional to the
voltage to be measured flows through the coil, a magnetic field is
set up by the coil. This magnetic field magnetises the two vanes in
the same direction i.e. similar polarities are developed at the same
ends of the vanes. Since the adjacent edges of the vanes are of the
same polarity, the two vanes repel each other. As the fixed vane
cannot move, the movable vane deflects and causes the pointer to
move from zero position. The pointer will come to rest at a position
where deflecting torque is equal to controlling torque provided by
the spring. If the current in the coil is reversed, the direction of
deflection remains unchanged. It is because reversal of the field of
the coil reverses the magnetisation of both iron vanes so that they
repel each other regardless which way current flows through the
coil. For this reason, such instruments can be used for both d.c. and
a.c. applications.
oAdvantages:

i)Cheap, robust and give reliable service.

ii)Usable in both a.c. and d.c. circuits.

oDisadvantages:

i)Have non-linear scale.

ii)Cannot be calibrate with high degree of precision for d.c. on
account of the affect of hysteresis in the iron vanes.
iii)Deflection up to 240º only may be obtained with this instrument.
iv)This instrument will always have to be put in the vertical position if
it uses gravity control.

oErrors with MI instruments:

i)Due to hysteresis when used in a.c. and d.c.
ii)Due to stray magnetic fields when used both in a.c. and d.c.
iii)Due to frequency variation when used in a.c.
iv)Due to waveforms effect when used in a.c.
Applications of MI instruments:
As an ammeter:
It may be constructed for full-scale deflection of 0.1
to 30A with out the use of shunts or current
transformers. To obtain full-scale deflection with
currents less than 0.1A, it requires a coil with a large
number of fine wire turns, which results in an
ammeter with a high impedance.
As an voltmeter:
The MI voltmeter is a fairly low impedance
instrument, typically, 50Ω/V for a 100V instrument.
The lowest full scale is of the order of 50V.The range
of the instrument, when used as a voltmeter, can be
extended by using a high non-inductive resistance R
connected in series with it. This series resistance is
known as ‘multiplier’.
INSRUMENT TRANSFORMER
It is a transformer that is used in conjunction with any measuring instrument
(i.e., Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wattmeter, Watt-hour-meter, …etc.)or protective
equipment (i.e., Relays).

It utilizes the current-transformation and voltage transformation properties to

measure high ac current and voltage.
Applications of Instrument Transformers:

For measurement of high ac current, it is usual to use low range ac ammeter

with suitable shunt.
For measurement of high ac voltage, low range ac voltmeters are used with high
resistances connected in series.
For measurement of very high ac current and voltage, we cannot use these
methods. Instead, we use specially constructed HV instrument transformers to
insulate the high voltage circuit from the measuring circuit in order to protect
the measuring instruments from burning.
 CURRENT TRANSFORMER
A current transformer is a transformer, which produces in its secondary winding low
current, which is proportional to the high current flowing in its primary winding.
The secondary current is usually much smaller in magnitude than the primary current.
The design of CT depends on which type of instrument is connected to its secondary
winding. Measuring instrument OR Protective instrument.
-Measuring instrument CT is expected to give accurate results up to a maximum
of 125% of its normal full-load rated current.
-Protective instrument CT is expected to be accurate for up to 20 times of its
normal full-load rated current.
Based on the type of equipment for which the Ct is used for, its saturation point will
vary. At the same time it is expected to be linear in the entire working range.

Construction of C.T.:

C.T. has a primary coil of one or more turns made of thick wire connected in series
with the line whose current is to be measured.
The secondary consists of a large number of turns made of fine wire and is connected
across an ammeter or a relay’s terminals
Construction Types of Current Transformers

Window-type

Bar-type
FUNCTION OF CURRENT TRANSFORMER

The principal function of a CT is to produce a proportional current at a level of

magnitude, which is suitable for the operation of low-range measuring or
protective devices such as indicating or recording instruments and relays.
The primary and secondary currents are expressed as a ratio such as 100/5 or
1000/5 .
With a 100/5 ratio CT, 100A flowing in the primary winding will result in 5A
flowing in the secondary winding, provided that the correct rated burden is
connected to the secondary winding.
POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER
A PT or sometimes called VT is a step-down transformer having many primary turns
but few secondary turns.
In a step-down transformer the voltage decreases and the current increases, thus
voltage can be easily measured by using a low-range voltmeter instrument.
The voltage is stepped-down in a known ratio called the voltage ratio.

Construction:
A potential transformer has many primary winding turns but few number of
secondary winding turns that makes it a step-down transformer.
A Voltmeter is connected to the secondary winding is usually a voltmeter of 150 V.
Working (Measurement):
Primary terminals are connected in parallel across the line to which the voltage is to
be measured.
The voltmeter reading gives the transformed value of the voltage across the
secondary terminals.
The deflection of the voltmeter when divided by the transformed ratio gives the
actual voltage across the primary winding as:
The Line voltage = deflection / transformation-Ratio
Where transformation ratio = V2/V1
 Electrodynamometer
type instrument

Itworks on dynamometer principle i.e.

mechanical force exists between two current
carrying conductors or coils.
Similar to PMMC
Portable, highest precision.
Transfer instruments.
 CONSTRUCTION
Fixed Coils: The operating field
is produced by the fixed coil which is
divided into two sections to give a
uniform field near the centre. The
coil is wound with fine wire when
used as a voltmeter and heavy wire
when used as an ammeter and
wattmeter. The wire is stranded,
when necessary, to reduce eddy
current losses in conductors.
Moving Coil: The moving coil is
wound either as a self sustaining coil
or else on a non-metallic former. The
use of metallic former is avoided in
order to avoid the inducement of
eddy currents in it. Both moving coils
and fixed coils are air cored.
Moving System: The moving coil is supported by an aluminium
spindle and jewel bearings and carries a pointer moving over a
graduated scale. The entire movement is very solid and rigidly
constructed in order to keep mechanical dimensions stable and its
calibration in tact.
Control system: The controlling torque is provided by two
control springs, which also act as leads to the moving coil.
Damping System: Air friction damping is used in these
instruments and may be either piston type or vane type. Eddy
current damping cannot be used in these instruments as
introduction of a permanent magnet for the purpose would distort
the working magnetic field of the instrument.
Shielding: The operating magnetic field produced by the fixed
coils in these instruments is somewhat weaker (0.005-0.006T) in
comparison to that in instruments of other types. So it is essential
to provide magnetic shielding to this arrangement.
The complete assembly is surrounded by a laminated steel
shield to protect the instrument from external magnetic field
which may affect the operation of the instrument.
 WORKING PRINCIPLE
The operating principle of dynamometer type
instruments is the interaction between the currents in
the moving coil, mounted on a shaft, and the fixed coils.
W hen two coils are energized, their magnetic fields
interact and the resulting torque tends to rotate the
moving coil. Since there is no iron, the field strength is
proportional to the current in the fixed coil and,
therefore, the deflecting torque is proportional to the
product of the currents in the fixed coil and the moving
coil.
When used as a wattmeter and, the fixed coil is the
current coil and the moving coil is the pressure coil.
Thus the current in the latter is proportional to the
voltage applied. Hence, the deflecting torque is
proportional to the product of the voltage and
current(that is power).
ELECTRODYNAMOMETER
 BALASSITIC GALVANOMETER
Principle. When a current is passed through a coil, suspended freely in a magnetic field,
it experiences a forces in a direction given by Fleming’s left hand rule. 

Construction. It consists of a rectangular coil of thin copper wire wound on a non-

metallic frame of ivory. It is suspended by means of a phosphor bronze wire between the
poles of a powerful horse-shoe magnet. A small circular mirror is attached to the
suspension wire. Lower end of the coil is connected to a hair-spring. The upper end of
the suspension wire and the lower end of the spring are connected to terminals T1 and
T2. A cylindrical soft iron core (C) is place symmetrically inside the coil between the
magnetic poles which are also made cylindrical in shape. This iron core concentrates the
magnetic field and helps in producing radial field. 

The B.G. is used to measure electric charge. The charge has to pass through the coil as
quickly as possible and before the coil stars moving. The coil thus gets an impulse and a
throw is registered. To achieve this result, a coil of high moment of inertia is used so that
the period of oscillation of the coil is fairly large. The oscillations of the coil are
practically undamped. 
BALASSITIC GALVANOMETER
VIBRATION GALVANOMETER

A vibration galvanometer is a type of mirror galvanometer, usually with a coil

suspended in the gap of a magnet or with a permanent magnet suspended in the
field of an electromagnet. The natural oscillation frequency of the moving parts
is carefully tuned to a specific frequency; commonly 50 or 60 Hz. Higher
frequencies up to 1 kHz are possible. Since the frequency depends on the mass
of the moving elements, high frequency vibration galvanometers are very small
with light coils and mirrors. The tuning of the vibration galvanometer is done by
adjusting the tension of the suspension spring.
The vibration galvanometer is used for detecting alternating currents in the
frequency of its natural resonance. Most common application is as a null
indicating instrument in ACbridge circuits and current comparators.
The sharp resonance of the vibration galvanometer makes it very sensitive to
changes in the measured current frequency and it can be used as an accurate
tuning device
VIBRATION GALVANOMETER
 POWER FACTOR METER
Power factor in an a.c. circuit just by dividing the power with product of current
and voltage as these readings can be easily obtained from wattmeter, ammeter and
voltmeter. Obviously there various limitations of using this method as it may not
provide high accuracy, also chances of increment of error is very high. Therefore
this method is not adopted in industrial world. Measurement of power factor
accurately is very essential everywhere. In power transmission system and
distribution system we measure power factor at every station and electrical
substation using these power factor meters. Power factor measurement provides
us the knowledge of type of loads that we are using, helps in calculation of losses
happening during the power transmission system and distribution.
Hence we need a separate device for calculating the power factor
accurately and more precisely. General construction of any power factor meter
circuit include two coils pressure coil and current coil. Pressure coil is connected
across the circuit while current coil is connected such it can carry circuit current
or a definite fraction of current, by measuring the phase difference between the
voltage and current the electrical power factor can be calculated on suitable
calibrated scale. Usually the pressure coil is splits into two parts namely inductive
and non-inductive part or pure resistive part. There is no requirement of
controlling system because at equilibrium there exist two opposite forces which
balance the movement of pointer without any requirement of controlling force
 Electrodynamometer Type Power Factor Meter

In electrodynamometer type power factor meter there are further two types on the
basis of supply voltage Single phase
Three phase.
The general circuit diagram of single phase electrodynamometer power factor meter
is given below.

Now the pressure coil is spitted into two parts one is purely inductive another is
purely resistive as shown in the diagram by resistor and inductor. At present the
reference plane is making an angle A with coil 1. And the angle between both the
coils 1 and 2 is 90°. Thus the coil 2 is making an angle (90° + A) with the reference
plane. Scale of the meter is properly calibrated shown the value values of cosine of
angle A. Let us mark the electrical resistance connected to coil 1 be R and inductor
connected to coil 2 be L. Now during measurement of power factor the values of R
and L are adjusted such that R=wL so that both coils carry equal magnitude of
current. Therefore the current passing through the coil 2 is lags by 90° with reference
to current in coil 1 as coil 2 path is highly inductively in nature.