Computer Communication Network
Course Code CME301
Chapter 6
TAHNIYAT ASLAM
Multiplexing
• Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the
simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single
data link. In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth
of one link. The word link refers to the physical path. The
word channel refers to the portion of a link that carries a
transmission.
Categories Of Multiplexing Techniques
There are three basic multiplexing techniques:
1. Frequency-division Multiplexing
2. Wavelength-division Multiplexing
3. Time-division Multiplexing
Categories Of Multiplexing Techniques
Frequency-division Multiplexing
• FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines
signals.
Frequency-division Multiplexing
• Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog
technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of a link (in
hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals
to be transmitted.
• In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate
different carrier frequencies.
• These modulated signals are then combined into a single
composite signal that can be transported by the link.
FDM Process
FDM Demultiplexing Example
Example 1
Five channels, each with a 100-KHz bandwidth, are to be
multiplexed together. What is the minimum bandwidth of the link
if there is a need for a guard band of 10 KHz between the
channels to prevent interference?
Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This means
that the required bandwidth is at least
5 x 100 + 4 x 10 = 540 KHz, as shown in Figure 6.7.
Example 1
Analog Hierarchy
Analog Hierarchy
1. In this analog hierarchy, 12 voice channels are multiplexed
onto a higher-bandwidth line to create a group. A group has
48 kHz of bandwidth and supports 12 voice channels.
2. At the next level, up to five groups can be multiplexed to
create a composite signal called a super group. A super
group has a bandwidth of 240 kHz and supports up to 60
voice channels. Super groups can be made up of either five
groups or 60 independent voice channels.
Analog Hierarchy
3. At the next level, 10 super groups are multiplexed to create a
master group. A master group must have 2.40 MHz of
bandwidth, but the need for guard bands between the super
groups increases the necessary bandwidth to 2.52 MHz.
Master groups support up to 600 voice channels.
4. Finally, six master groups can be combined into a jumbo
group. A jumbo group must have 15.12 MHz (6 x 2.52 MHz)
but is augmented to 16.984 MHz to allow for guard bands
between the master groups.
.
Example 2
The Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) uses two bands.
The first band, 824 to 849 MHz, is used for sending; and 869 to
894 MHz is used for receiving. Each user has a bandwidth of 30
KHz in each direction. The 3-KHz voice is modulated using FM,
creating 30 KHz of modulated signal. How many people can use
their cellular phones simultaneously?
Solution
Each band is 25 MHz. If we divide 25 MHz into 30 KHz, we get
833.33. In reality, the band is divided into 832 channels.
Applications of FDM
• A very common application of FDM is AM and FM radio
broadcasting. A special band from 530 to 1700 kHz is assigned
to AM radio. And FM has a wider band of 88 to 108 MHz
• Another common use of FDM is in television broadcasting.
• The first generation of cellular telephones also uses FDM.
Wavelength-division Multiplexing
• Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use
the high bandwidth capability of fiber-optic cable. WDM is an
analog multiplexing technique to combine optical signals.
Wavelength-division Multiplexing
• One application of WDM is the SONET network in which
multiple optical fiber lines are multiplexed and demultiplexed.
• A new method, called dense WDM (DWDM), can multiplex a
very large number of channels by spacing channels very close
to one another. It achieves even greater efficiency.
Time-division Multiplexing
• Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that
allows several connections to share the high bandwidth of a
link. TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining
several low-rate channels into one high-rate one.
TDM frames
TDM is a digital multiplexing technique to combine data.
Switched Network
• A switched network consists of a series of interlinked nodes,
called switches.
• There are two methods of switching:
1. Circuit switching
2. Packet switching
Switched Network
Circuit-Switched Network
• A circuit-switched network is made of a set of switches
connected by physical links, in which each link is divided into
n channels.
• Circuit switching takes place at the physical layer.
• In circuit switching, the resources need to be reserved during
the setup phase; the resources remain dedicated for the entire
duration of data transfer phase until the teardown phase.
• The traditional telephone network uses the circuit-switching
approach.
Circuit-Switched Network
Circuit-Switched Network
• Before starting communication, the stations must make a
reservation for the resources to be used during the
communication. These resources, such as channels (bandwidth
in FDM and time slots in TDM), switch buffers, switch
processing time, and switch input/output ports, must remain
dedicated during the entire duration of data transfer until the
teardown phase.
Circuit-Switched Network
• Data transferred between the two stations are not packetized
(physical layer is used to transfer the signal). The data are a
continuous flow sent by the source station and received by the
destination station, although there may be periods of silence.
• There is no addressing involved during data transfer. The
switches route the data based on their occupied band (FDM) or
time slot (TDM).
• Three Phases
The actual communication in a circuit-switched network requires
three phases:
1. Setup phase
2. Data transfer phase
3. Connection Teardown Phase
• SETUP PHASE
Before the two parties (or multiple parties in a conference call)
can communicate, a dedicated circuit (combination of channels in
links) needs to be established.
• DATA TRANSFER PHASE
After the establishment of the dedicated circuit (channels), the
two parties can transfer data.
• CONNECTION TEARDOWN PHASE
When one of the parties needs to disconnect, a signal is sent to
each switch to release the resources.
• Efficiency
• It can be argued that circuit-switched networks are not as
efficient as the other two types of networks because resources
are allocated during the entire duration of the connection.
These resources are unavailable to other connections.
• In a telephone network, people normally terminate the
communication when they have finished their conversation.
• However, in computer networks, a computer can be
connected to another computer even if there is no activity for
a long time. In this case, allowing resources to be dedicated
means that other connections are deprived.
• Delay
• The delay in this type of network is minimal. During data
transfer the data are not delayed at each switch; the resources
are allocated for the duration of the connection.
• There is no waiting time at each switch. The total delay is due
to the time needed to create the connection, transfer data, and
disconnect the circuit.
Packet Switching
• In packet switching, there is no resource allocation for a
packet.
• This means that there is no reserved bandwidth on the links,
and there is no scheduled processing time for each packet.
• Resources are allocated on demand.
• Packet-switched networks can also be divided into two
subcategories:
1. Virtual-Circuit Networks
2. Datagram Networks
Datagram Network
• In a datagram network, each packet is treated independently of
all others.
• Packets in this approach are referred to as datagrams.
• There are no setup or teardown phases.
• The switches in a datagram network are traditionally referred
to as routers.
• Switching in the Internet is done by using the datagram
approach to packet switching at the network layer.
• The datagram networks are sometimes referred to as
connectionless networks.
• The term connectionless here means that the switch (packet
switch) does not keep information about the connection
state.
• There are no setup or teardown phases.
• Each packet is treated the same by a switch regardless of
its source or destination.
• Routing Table
• If there are no setup or teardown phases, how are the packets
routed to their destinations in a datagram network?
• In this type of network, each switch (or packet switch) has a
routing table which is based on the destination address.
• Destination Address
The destination address in the header of a packet in a
datagram network remains the same during the entire
journey of the packet.
• Efficiency
The efficiency of a datagram network is better than that of a
circuit-switched network; resources are allocated only when there
are packets to be transferred.
• Delay
• There may be greater delay in a datagram network than in a
virtual-circuit network.
• Although there are no setup and teardown phases, each packet
may experience a wait at a switch before it is forwarded. In
addition, since not all packets in a message necessarily travel
through the same switches, the delay is not uniform for the
packets of a message.
Delay
Virtual-Circuit Network
• A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched
network and a datagram network.
• It has some characteristics of both.
• Switching at the data link layer in a switched WAN is
normally implemented by using virtual-circuit techniques.
• Three Phases
• There are three phases in a virtual-circuit network: setup, data
transfer, and teardown.
• In the setup phase, the source and destination use their global
addresses to help switches make table entries for the
connection.
• In the teardown phase, the source and destination inform the
switches to delete the corresponding entry.
• The data transfer phase is active until the source sends all its
frames to the destination. The procedure at the switch is the
same for each frame of a message. The process creates a
virtual circuit, not a real circuit, between the source and
destination
Virtual-Circuit Network
Virtual-Circuit Network
• A virtual-circuit network is normally implemented in the data
link layer, while a circuit-switched network is implemented in
the physical layer and a datagram network in the network
layer.
• Addressing
1. Global Addressing
A source or a destination needs to have a global network.
2. Virtual-Circuit Identifier
It is used by a frame between two switches. When a frame arrives
at a switch, it has a VCI; when it leaves, it has a different VCI.
Efficiency
• In virtual-circuit switching, all packets belonging to the same
source and destination travel the same path; but the packets
may arrive at the destination with different delays if resource
allocation is on demand
Delay in Virtual-Circuit Networks
• In a virtual-circuit network, there is a one-time delay for setup
and a one-time delay for teardown. If resources are allocated
during the setup phase, there is no wait time for individual
packets.
DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE
• Digital subscriber line (DSL) technology is one of the most
promising for supporting high-speed digital communication
over the existing local loops.
• DSL technology is a set of technologies, each differing in the
first letter (ADSL, VDSL, HDSL, and SDSL).
ADSL
• ADSL is an asymmetric communication technology designed
for residential users; it is not suitable for businesses.
• The existing local loops can handle bandwidths up to 1.1
MHz.
• ADSL is an adaptive technology. The system uses a data rate
based on the condition of the local loop line.
• HDSL
The high-bitrate digital subscriber line (HDSL) was designed as
an alternative to the T-l line (1.544 Mbps).
• SDSL
The symmetric digital subscriber line (SDSL) is a one twisted-
pair version of HDSL.
• VDSL
The very high-bit-rate digital subscriber line (VDSL) is an
alternative approach that is similar to ADSL.
Summary of DSL Technologies
