Fundamentals of

Computers

Reema Thareja

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 Chapter 3

Computer Memory and

Processors

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 Introduction
Memory is an internal storage area in the computer, which
is used to store data and programs either temporarily or
permanently.

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Memory
Hierarchy

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 Processor Registers
• Fastest memory among all types of computer data storage

• Located inside the processor, thus directly accessible by the CPU

• Stores a word of data (either 32 or 64 bits)

• CPU instructions instruct the ALU to perform operations on this

data

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 Cache Memory
• An intermediate form of storage between the ultra-fast processor
registers and RAM
• Stores instructions and data that are repeatedly required to
execute programs
• Improves the overall system speed, thereby increasing the
performance of the computer

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 Primary Memory
• Directly accessed by the CPU
• Any data that has to be operated by the CPU is stored in this
memory
• There are two types:
➢ Random Access Memory (RAM)
➢ Read Only Memory (ROM)

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Random Access Memory (RAM)
• A volatile storage area that is used to store data temporarily, so
that it can be promptly accessed by the processor
• Called “random access” because any memory cell can be directly
accessed if its address is known
• There are two types:
➢ Static RAM

➢ Dynamic RAM

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 Static RAM (SRAM)
• Holds data without an external refresh as long as it is powered

• Made of D flip-flops
• No need for an external refresh process to be carried out
• SRAM is faster and more reliable than DRAM
• Occupies more space and is more expensive than DRAM

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 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
• A DRAM chip contains millions of tiny memory cells

• To store a bit of information in a DRAM chip, a tiny amount of

power is put into the cell to charge the capacitor
• A refresh process is required to maintain the charge in the
capacitor so that it can retain the information
• One disadvantage of DRAM is that the capacitor leaks energy very
quickly and can hold the charge for only a fraction of a second

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 Read Only Memory (ROM)
• A non-volatile memory that retains the data even after the power
is switched off
• Refers to computer memory chips containing permanent or semi-
permanent data
• A small amount of ROM stores critical programs such as BIOS

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 Types of ROM
• Programmable ROM (PROM) can be written to or programmed
using a special device called a PROM programmer which uses
high voltages to permanently write data in it
• Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM) can be erased and re-
programmed by exposing the chip to strong UV light and then
rewriting at a higher voltage
• Electrically Erasable Programmable PROM (EEPROM) allows
contents to be electrically erased and then rewritten

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 Secondary Storage Devices
• Also known as external memory or auxiliary storage
• Not directly accessible by the CPU
• Holds data even after the power is switched off
• Cheaper than primary memory and can be used to store large
amounts of data

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 Magnetic Tapes
• Mass storage devices capable of backing up and retaining large
volumes of data
• Used as sequential access secondary storage devices
• Data is stored in form of records
• Cheap, compact in size, light in weight, can store large amounts of
data and use less power
• Slow, can be used sequentially, easily susceptible to degradation
due to heat, humidity, etc.

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 Floppy Disks
• Consist of thin magnetic storage medium encased in a square
plastic shell lined with fabric that removes dust particles
• Widely used from mid-1970s to 2000
• Inexpensive but slow and with limited storage capacity
• Data can be lost if the disk is bended, removed, while in use, or
exposed to excessive temperature, dust, or smoke

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 Hard Disks
• A set of disks, stacked together

• Each platter requires two R/W heads, one for each side
• Data is stored on the surface of a platter in sectors and tracks

• The performance of a hard disk depends on its access time, which

is the time required to read or write on the disk
• Enable random access of data
• Can be used as a shared device in time-sharing environment

• Larger in size and heavier in weight as compared to flash drives

and optical disks
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 Optical Drives
• Optical storage refers to storing data on an optically readable
medium by making marks in a pattern that can be read using a
beam of laser light precisely focused on a spinning disk
• Most widely used and reliable storage devices
• Popular optical storage devices are:
➢ CD-ROM
➢ DVD-ROM
➢ CD-Recordable
➢ CD-Rewritable

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 CD-ROM
• Uses laser technology to read and write data onto the disk
• A single CD-ROM can store a large amount of data, but once the
information is stored on it, it becomes permanent
• Storage capacity varies from 650 MB to 1 GB
• CD-ROM drive is used to read the information stored in a CD-ROM

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 DVD-ROM
• Extremely high-capacity optical disk with storage capacity
from 4.7 GB to 17 GB
• Widely used to store large databases, movies, music, complex
software, etc.
• Double-sided disks, as they can store data on both the sides of
the disk

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 CD-R (Recordable)
• The process of writing data on the optical disk is called burning

• Can be used in any CD-ROM drive and is functionally equivalent

to a pre-recorded CD-ROM
• Once data is written on the CD-R, it cannot be changed
• Users can continue to store data on other parts of the disk until it
is full

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 CD-RW (Rewritable)
• Users can write and over-write data on the CD-RW disk multiple
times
• The reliability of the disk tends to decrease, each time data is
rewritten

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 USB Flash Drives
• Removable, rewritable, and are physically much smaller drives,
weighing less than 30 g
• Data is impervious to damages due to scratches and dust
• Very robust, portable with high data capacity

• Use very little power

• No need to install device drivers
• Can sustain only a limited number of write and erase cycles

• Cost per unit of storage of a flash drive is higher

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 Memory Cards
• A small device that can store digital files
• Easily portable, smaller, require less power
• Have higher storage capacity, are completely silent, are less
prone to mechanical failures, allow immediate access to data

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 Mass Storage Devices
• Mass storage refers to storing enormous amounts of data in a
persistent manner
• Mass storage devices can store up to several trillion bytes of data
• Have high data storage capacity, are easily portable, and have low
power consumption
• Commonly used devices are:

➢ Disk Array
➢ Automated Tape Library
➢ CD-ROM Jukebox
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 Disk Array
• Commonly known as a redundant array of independent disks
(RAID)
• Group of one or more physically independent and high-capacity
hard disk drives
• Used in place of larger, single disk drive systems
• Improve speed and increase protection against loss of data

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 Automated Tape Library
• One or more tape drives to store large amounts of data ranging
from 20 terabytes to more than 411 petabytes
• A cost-effective solution to the problem of storing large volumes of
data

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 CD-ROM Jukebox
• Also known as an optical jukebox, an optical disk library, or a
robotic drive
• Data storage device that can automatically load and unload optical
disks to provide terabytes and petabytes of tertiary storage
• Can have up to 2,000 slots for disks and usually have a robot that
traverses the slots and drives for loading the appropriate CD-ROM

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Basic Processor Architecture

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 Registers
• A computer memory that provides quick access to the data
currently being used for processing
• ALU stores all temporary and final results in registers

• No. of general purpose registers varies from processor to

processor
• When program execution is complete, the result of processing
is transferred from accumulator to the memory through MBR

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 Registers
• MAR stores the address of the data or instruction to be
fetched from the main memory
• MBR stores the data or instruction fetched from the memory
• IR stores the instructions currently being executed

• I/O register is used to transfer data or instructions to or from

an I/O device
• PC stores the address of the next instruction to be executed

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 Instruction Cycle
• To execute an instruction, a processor follows a set of basic
operations that are together called Instruction Cycle
• Fetch: Retrieving an instruction or a data from memory
• Decode: Interpreting the instruction

• Execute: Running the corresponding commands to process data

• Store: Writing the results of processing into memory

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 Bus Interface

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 Bus Interface
• Provides functions for transferring data between the execution
unit of the CPU and other components of the computer system
that lie outside the CPU
• Puts the contents of the program counter on address bus
• Once the memory receives an address from the BIU, it places the
contents at that address on the data bus, which is then transferred
to the IR of the processor through the MBR

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 Instruction Set
• Set of commands that instructs the processor to perform specific
tasks
• For example, tells the processor what it needs to do, from where
to find the data, from where to find instruction, etc.
• Can be built into the hardware, or can be emulated in the software
using an interpreter

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 System Clock
• Controls the timing of all operations within the computer
• Synchronize various operations that take place within computer

• Measured by the number of ticks per second

• A processor can perform some operations in a single clock tick
• Faster the clock ticks, more is the number of operations that can
be performed

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 Pipelining
• Pipelining is a technique with which the processor can fetch the
second instruction before completing the execution of the first
instruction
• Such processors that can execute more than one instruction per
clock cycle are called superscalar processors
• With superscalar architecture, processors can execute programs
faster by replicating components such as ALUs

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 Parallel Processing
• In parallel processing, multiple processors can be used
simultaneously to execute a single program or task
• A complex and large task is divided into smaller tasks in such a way
that each task can be allocated to a processor

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 CISC Computers
• In CISC, hardware bear more responsibility than the software
so that the software can be simple and easy
• Programs can be very simple and short requiring less space
• Less effort is required by the translator to convert the
program into machine language, thus faster execution
• However, machines require additional hardware circuitry

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 RISC Computers
• RISC utilizes a small but highly optimized set of instructions
• Although RISC machines are less complex and less expensive, they
place extra demand on programmers to implement complex
computations by combining simple instructions

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