ELECTROTECHNIQUE 1

LEB 20503

 Define and explain characteristics of

sinusoidal wave, phase relationships
and phase shifting

1
SINUSOIDAL ALTERNATING
WAVEFORMS
(CHAPTER 2)

2
2.1 Introduction
Alternating waveforms
• Alternating signal is a signal that varies with respect to time.
• Alternating signal can be categories into ac voltage and ac
current.
• This voltage and current have positive and negative value.

3
2.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
• Voltage and current value is represent by vertical axis and time
represent by horizontal axis.
• In the first half, current or voltage will increase into maximum positive
value and come back to zero.
• Then in second half, current or voltage will increase into negative
maximum voltage and come back to zero.
• One complete waveform is called one cycle.
volts or amperes

units of time

4
2.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
Defined Polarities and Direction
• The voltage polarity and current direction will be for an instant
in time in the positive portion of the sinusoidal waveform.
• In the figure b, a lowercase letter is employed for polarity and
current direction to indicate that the quantity is time dependent;
that is, its magnitude will change with time.

5
13.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
Defined Polarities and Direction
• For a period of time, a voltage has one polarity, while for the
next equal period it reverses. A positive sign is applied if the
voltage is above the axis.
• For a current source, the direction in the symbol corresponds
with the positive region of the waveform.

6
2.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
There are several specification in sinusoidal
waveform:
1. period
2. frequency
3. instantaneous value
4. peak value
5. peak to peak value
6. angular velocity
7. average value
8. effective value 7
2.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
Period (T)
• Period is defines as the amount of time is take to go through
one cycle.
• Period for sinusoidal waveform is equal for each cycle.

Cycle
• The portion of a waveform contained in one period of time.

Frequency (f)
• Frequency is defines as number of cycles in one seconds.
1
• It can derives as
f   hertz, Hzf = Hz
T = seconds (s)8
T
2.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions

The cycles within T1, T2, and T3 may appear different in

the figure above, but they are all bounded by one period of time
and therefore satisfy the definition of a cycle.
9
2.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
Signal with lower frequency Signal with higher frequency

Frequency = 1 cycle Frequency = 21/2 cycles Frequency = 2 cycles

per second per second per second

1 hertz (Hz) = 1 cycle per second (cps) 10

2.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
Instantaneous value
• Instantaneous value is magnitude value of waveform at
one specific time.
• Symbol for instantaneous value of voltage is v(t) and
current is i(t).
v(0.1)  8 V
v(0.6)  0 V
v(1.1)  8 V

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2.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
Peak Value
• The maximum instantaneous value of a function as measured
from zero-volt level.
• For one complete cycle, there are two peak value that is
positive peak value and negative peak value.
• Symbol for peak value of voltage is Em or Vm and current is Im .

Peak value, Vm = 8 V

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2.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
Peak to peak value
• The full voltage between positive and negative peaks of the
waveform, that is, the sum of the magnitude of the positive and
negative peaks.
• Symbol for peak to peak value of voltage is Ep-p or Vp-p and
current is Ip-p
Peak to peak value, Vp-p = 16 V

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2.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
Angular velocity
• Angular velocity is the velocity with which the radius vector
rotates about the center.
• Symbol of angular speed is  and units is
radians/seconds (rad/s)
• Horizontal axis of waveform can be represent by time and
angular speed.

2 radian  360
3600
1 radian   57.30 ,   3.142
2 14
2.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
Angular velocity

Degree Radian Radian Degree

90° (π/180°) x ( 90°) = π/2 rad
π /3 (180° /π) x (π /3) = 60°

60° (π/180°) x ( 60°) = π/3 rad

π (180° /π) x (π ) = 180°

30° (π/180°) x (30°) = π/6 rad 3π /2 (180°/π) x (3π /2) = 270°

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2.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
Plotting a sine wave versus (a) degrees and (b) radians.

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2.2 Sinusoidal AC
Voltage
Characteristics and
Definitions
•The sinusoidal wave form
can be derived from the
length of the vertical
projection of a radius vector
rotating in a uniform circular
motion about a fixed point.

Waveform picture with respect to angular velocity 17

2.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
Angular velocity

• Formula of angular velocity

distance (degrees or radians) 

angular degree,   
time (seconds) t
  t

Since (ω) is typically provided in radians/second, the

angle ϴ obtained using ϴ = ωt is usually in radians.

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2.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
Angular velocity

• The time required to complete one cycle is equal to the

period (T) of the sinusoidal waveform.
• One cycle in radian is equal to 2π (360o).

2   2f
 or (rad/s)
T 19
2.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
Angular velocity
Demonstrating the effect of  on the frequency f and period T.

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2.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
Example 1
Given  = 200 rad/s, determine how long it will take the
sinusoidal waveform to pass through an angle of 90

Example 2
Find the angle through which a sinusoidal waveform of
60 Hz will pass in a period of 5 ms.

Keyword: Keyword:
  2f , ϴ = ωt

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2.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
Average value
• Average value is average value for all instantaneous value in
half or one complete waveform cycle.
• It can be calculate in two ways:
1. Calculate the area under the graph:

Average value = area under the function in a period

period

2. Use integral method

T
1
average _ value   v(t )dt
T 0

For a symmetry waveform, area upper section equal to area

under the section, so just take half of the period only. 22
2.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
Average value
• Example: Calculate the average value of the waveform below.

Vm

L01 1/2/2013
Vm

  rad
2

For a sinus waveform , average value can

be calculate by
Vm
Vaverage   0.637Vm
 23
2.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
Effective value
• The most common method of specifying the amount of sine wave of
voltage or current by relating it into dc voltage and current that will
produce the same heat effect.
• Effective value is the equivalent dc value of a sinusoidal current or
voltage, which is 1/√2 or 0.707 of its peak value.
• The equivalent dc value is called rms value or effective value.
• The formula of effective value for sine wave waveform is;

1
I rms  I m  0.707 I m
2
I m  2 I rms  1.414 I rms
1
Erms  Em  0.707 Em
2 Em  2 Erms  1.414 Erms
24
2.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
Example 3
The 120 V dc source delivers 3.6 W to the load. Find Em and Im of
the ac source, if the same power is to be delivered to the load.

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2.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
Example 3 – solution
P 3.6
Edc I dc  P  3.6 W I dc    30 mA
Edc 120
Em Im
Erms  Edc  and I rms  I dc 
2 2

Em  2 Edc  1.414 120  169.7 V

I m  2 I dc  1.414  30  42.43 mA

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2.2 Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
Example 3 – solution

Em Im
Erms  Edc  I rms  I dc 
2 2

Em  2 Erms I m  2 I rms
 1.414  120  1.414  30
 169.7 V  42.43 mA

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2.5 General Format for the
Sinusoidal Voltage or Current
The basic mathematical volts or amperes
format for the sinusoidal
waveform is:

where:
Am : peak value of the
waveform
 : angle from the
horizontal axis Basic sine wave for current or voltage
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2.5 General Format for the
Sinusoidal Voltage or Current
• The general format of a sine wave can also be as:

α= ωt

• General format for electrical quantities such as current

and voltage is:
i  t   I m sin t  I m sin 

e t   Em sin t  Em sin 

where: I m and Em is the peak value of current

and voltage while i(t) and v(t) is the instantaneous
value of current and voltage. 29
2.5 General Format for the
Sinusoidal Voltage or Current
Example 4
Given e(t) = 5 sin, determine e(t) at  = 40 and  = 0.8.

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2.5 General Format for the
Sinusoidal Voltage or Current
Example 4

Given e(t) = 5 sin, determine e(t) at  = 40 and  = 0.8.

Solution
For  = 40, e t   5 sin 40  3.21 V

 180 
For  = 0.8   0.8    144
  

e t   5 sin 144  2.94 V

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2.5 General Format for the
Sinusoidal Voltage or Current
Example 5
(a) Determine the angle at which the magnitude of the
sinusoidal function v(t) = 10 sin 377t is 4 V.

(b) Determine the time

at which the magnitude
is attained.

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2.5 General Format for the
Sinusoidal Voltage or Current
Example 5 - solution

v t   Vm sin t V Vm  10 V;   377 rad/s

Hence, v t   10 sin 377t V

When v(t) = 4 V,
4  10 sin 377t
4
sin 377t  sin    0.4
10
1  sin 1 0.4  23.58
 2  180  23.58  156.42
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2.5 General Format for the
Sinusoidal Voltage or Current
Example 5 – solution (cont’d)

(a) But α is in radian, so α must be calculate in radian:

1  377t  23.58  0.412 rad
 2  156.42  2.73 rad

(b) Given,   t , so t 

0.412
t1   1.09 ms
377
2.73
t2   7.24 ms
377 34
2.6 Phase Relationship

Phase angle
• Phase angle is a shifted angle waveform from reference
origin.
• Phase angle is been represent by symbol θ or Φ
• Units is degree ° or radian
• Two waveform is called in phase if its have a same
phase degree or different phase is zero
• Two waveform is called out of phase if its have a
different phase.

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2.6 Phase Relationship
The unshifted sinusoidal waveform is
represented by the expression:

a  Am sin t

wt

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2.6 Phase Relationship
Sinusoidal waveform which is shifted to the
right or left of 0° is represented by the
expression:

a  Am sin  t   
where  is the angle (in degrees or radians) that
the waveform has been shifted.

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2.6 Phase Relationship
If the wave form passes through the horizontal axis
with a positive-going (increasing with the time)
slope before 0°:
a  Am sin  t   
a  Am sin  t   

wt

38
2.6 Phase Relationship
If the waveform passes through the horizontal axis
with a positive-going slope after 0°:

a  Am sin  t   

wt

39
2.6 Phase Relationship

wt

 
sin  t  90  sin  t    cos t
 2
 
sin t  cos t  90  cos t  
 2 40
2.6 Phase Relationship
• The terms leading and lagging are used to indicate
the relationship between two sinusoidal waveforms
of the same frequency f （ or angular velocity ω)
plotted on the same set of axes.

– The cosine curve is said to lead the sine curve

by 90.
– The sine curve is said to lag the cosine curve by
90.
– 90 is referred to as the phase angle between
the two waveforms.
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2.6 Phase Relationship
+ cos
α cos (α-90o)
Note:
sin (α+90o) sin (- α) = - sin α
cos(- α) = cos α
- sin α + sin α

Start at + sin α position;

cos   sin    90
- cos α
sin   cos   90
 sin   sin    180
 cos   sin    270  sin    90
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2.6 Phase Relationship
If a sinusoidal expression should appear as

e   Em sin t
the negative sign is associated with the sine
portion of the expression, not the peak value
Em , i.e.
e   Em sin t  e  Em   sin t 

And, since; 
 sin t  sin t  180 

 Em sin t  Em sin t  180  

 43
2.6 Phase Relationship
Example 6
Determine the phase relationship between the following waveforms


(a) v  10 sin t  30  
(c) i  2 cos t  10 

i  5 sin t  70  
v  3 sin t  10 


(b) i  15 sin t  60  
(d) i   sin t  30 
v  10 sin t  20  

v  2 sin t  10 

44
2.6 Phase Relationship
Example 6 – solution


(a) v  10 sin t  30 
 i leads v by 40

i  5 sin t  70 
 or
v lags i by 40

45
2.6 Phase Relationship
Example 6 – solution (cont’d)

(b) i  15 sin t  60  

i leads v by 80
v  10 sin t  20 
 or
v lags i by 80

46
2.6 Phase Relationship
Example 6 – solution (cont’d)


(c) i  2 cos t  10 
 i leads v by 110

v  3 sin t  10 
 or
v lags i by 110

47
2.6 Phase Relationship
Example 6 – solution (cont’d)


(d) i   sin t  30 
 OR

v  2 sin t  10 
 v leads i by 160 i leads v by 200
Or Or
i lags v by 160 v lags i by 200

48