Lecture Notes- 4+5

FORMALISTIC FRAME OF
QUANTUM MECHANICS
 First Postulate of Quantum Mechanics
Quantum physicists are interested in all kinds of physical systems
(photons, conduction electrons in metals and semiconductors, atoms,
etc.). State of these rather diverse systems are represented by the same
type of functions  STATE FUNCTIONS.

First postulate of Quantum mechanics:

Every physically-realizable state of the system is described in quantum
mechanics by a state function  that contains all accessible physical
information about the system in that state.

– Physically realizable states  states that can be studied in laboratory

– Accesible information  the information we can extract from the
wavefunction
– State function  function of position, momentum, energy that is spatially
localized.
If 1 and 2 represent two physically-realizable states of the system, then
the linear combination

  c1  1  c 2  2
where c1 and c2 are arbitrary complex constants, represents a third
physically realizable state of the system.

Note:
Wavefunction (x,t)  position and time probability amplitude

Quantum mechanics describes the outcome of an ensemble of

measurements, where an ensemble of measurements consists of a very
large number of identical experiments performed on identical non-
interacting systems, all of which have been identically prepared so as to be
in the same state.
Second Postulate of Quantum Mechanics
If a system is in a quantum state represented by a wavefunction , then
2
PdV   dV
is the probability that in a position measurement at time t the particle will
be detected in the infinitesimal volume dV.

Note:
2
 ( x, t )
 position and time probability density

The importance of normalization follows from the Born interpretation of

the state function as a position probability amplitude. According to the
second postulate of quantum mechanics, the integrated probability
density can be interpreted as a probability that in a position measurement
at time t, we will find the particle anywhere in space.
Therefore, the normalization condition for the
wavefunction is:
2 *
 PdV    ( x , y , z ) dV   ( x , y , z )  ( x , y , z ) dV  1

Limitations on the wavefunction:
– Only normalizable functions can represent a quantum
state and these are called physically admissible functions.
– State function must be continuous and single valued
function.
– State function must be a smoothly-varying function
(continuous derivative).
Properties of an Acceptable Wavefunction

• The wavefunction must be

– Continuous
– No singularities
– Single-valued
– Continuous first derivatives
 Third Postulate of Quantum Mechanics
Every observable in quantum mechanics is represented by an operator which is used to
obtain physical information about the observable from the state function. For an
observable that is represented in classical physics by a function Q(x,p), the corresponding
 
operator is Q( x , p) .
Observable Operator

Position x
Momentum   
p
i x
Energy 
p2  2 2
E  V (x)    V ( x)
2m 2m x 2
 An operator is an instruction, a symbol which tells us to perform one or more
mathematical acts on a function, say f(x). The essential point is that they act on a
function.
 Operators act on everything to the right, unless the action is constrained by brackets.
 Addition and subtraction rule for operators:

 
  
Q1  Q2 f ( x)  Q1 f ( x)  Q2 f ( x)
 The product of two operators implies succesive operation:
   

Q1Q2 f ( x)  Q1 Q2 f ( x) 
 The product of two operators is a third operator:
  
Q3  Q1Q2
 Two operators commute if they obey the simple operator expression:
 
  
    
Q1, Q2  Q1Q2  Q2Q1  0  Q1Q2  Q2Q1
 
The requirement for two operators to be commuting
operators is a very important one in quantum mechanics and
it means that we can simultaneously measure the observables
represented with these two operators. The non-commutivity
of the position and the momentum operators (the inability to
simultaneously determine particles position and its
momentum) is represented with the Heisenberg uncertainty
principle, which in mathematical form is expressed as:

 1
x  p    x, p
 
2 2
and can be generalized for any pair of observables.
 Fourth Postulate of Quantum Mechanics
1926 Erwin Schrödinger proposed an equation that describes the evolution of a quantum-
mechanical system  SWE which represents quantum equations of motion, and is of the
form:
 2  2  2 2  
  V ( x ) ( x , t )     V ( x )   ( x , t )  i
2m x 2  2m x 2
 
 t
This work of Schrödinger was stimulated by a 1925 paper by Einstein on the quantum
theory of ideal gas, and the de Broglie theory of matter waves.

Note:
Examining the time-dependent SWE, one can also define the following operator for the
total energy:
 
E  i
t

Fourth (Fundamental) postulate of Quantum mechanics:

The time development of the state functions of an isolated quantum system is governed
   
by the time-dependent SWE H  i / t , where H  T  V is the Hamiltonian of the
system.

Note on isolated system:

The TDSWE describes the evolution of a state provided that no observations are made.
An observation alters the state of the observed system, and as it is, the TDSWE can not
describe such changes.
1926 Erwin Schrödinger proposed an equation that describes the evolution of a quantum -
mechanical system  SWE which represents quantum equations of motion, and is of the
form:
 2  2  2 2  
  V ( x ) ( x , t )     V ( x )   ( x , t )  i
2m x 2

 2 m x 2

 t
This work of Schrödinger was stimulated by a 1925 paper by Einstein on the quantum
theory of ideal gas, and the de Broglie theory of matter waves.

Note:
Examining the time-dependent SWE, one can also define the following operator for the
total energy:
 
E  i
t

Fourth (Fundamental) postulate of Quantum mechanics:

The time development of the state functions of an isolated quantum system is governed
   
by the time-dependent SWE H  i / t , where H  T  V is the Hamiltonian of the
system.

Note on isolated system:

The TDSWE describes the evolution of a state provided that no observations are made.
An observation alters the state of the observed system, and as it is, the TDSWE can not
describe such changes.
 Expectation Values
• Only average values of physical quantities can be
determined (can’t determine value of a quantity at a point)
• These average values are called Expectation Values
– These are values of physical quantities that quantum mechanics
predicts and which, from experimental point of view, are averages
of multiple measurements
• Example, [expected] position of the particle

 
x  

xP( x)dx , with 

P( x)dx  1
• Since P(r,t)dV=|Ψ(r,t)|2dV, we have a way to
calculate expectation values if the wavefunction for the
system (or particle) is known
 

 
2 2
x  xP( x , t )dx  x ( x , t ) dx, since ( x , t )   * ( x , t )( x , t )
 

x  

 * ( x , t )x( x , t )dx

• In General for a Physical Quantity W

– Below Ŵ is an operator (discussed later) acting on
wavefunction Ψ(r,t)

 

W  

ˆ ( x , t ) dx
 * ( x, t) W
 Expectation Value
for Momentum of a Free Particle
 
   
p   ( x)  pˆ  ( x) dx   ( x)   i  ( x) dx
* *

 x  
• Generally  

 ( x)
p  i    ( x ) *  dx

x
 

  Ae   Ae dx  1,
ikx *
  ( x) dx 
2
 ( x)  Ae ikx
with ikx

• Free  

where A  0 as limits of integration  

Particle 
p   Ae   i x Ae
ikx * ikx 
 dx
 
 

  Ae       Ae dx  k  p
ikx *  *
p  ik Aeikx dx  k  Aeikx ikx


i 
 Example
• Sebuah partikel dengan masa m, yang bergerak secara
bebas di dalam daerah dengan lebar a, mempunyai
fungsi

dimana A adalah konstanta real.

– Tentukan A sedemikian sehingga ternormalisasi.
– Jika pengukuran energi dilakukan, berapa nilai-nilai energi
yang didapatkan dan berapa probabilitasnya ?
– Hitung energi reratanya ?