Metal Casting Processes

Part 2

Manufacturing Processes, 1311

Dr Simin Nasseri
Southern Polytechnic State University

1
Permanent Mold Casting Processes
Students’ presentations

Economic disadvantage of expendable mold

casting: a new mold is required for every
casting
In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused
many times
The processes include:
 Basic permanent mold casting
 Die casting
 Centrifugal casting

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Prof Simin Nasseri
The Basic Permanent Mold Process
Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections
designed for easy, precise opening and
closing

Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys

are commonly made of steel or cast iron

Molds used for casting steel must be made of

refractory material, due to the very high
pouring temperatures

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Prof Simin Nasseri
 Permanent Mold Casting
Figure 11.10 Steps in
permanent mold
casting: (1) mold is
preheated and coated

Figure 11.10 Steps in permanent mold casting: (2) cores (if used) are inserted and
mold is closed, (3) molten metal is poured into the mold, where it solidifies.
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Prof Simin Nasseri
Advantages and Limitations
Advantages of permanent mold casting:
 Good dimensional control and surface finish
 More rapid solidification caused by the cold
metal mold results in a finer grain structure,
so castings are stronger
Limitations:
 Generally limited to metals of lower melting
point
 Simpler part geometries compared to sand
casting because of need to open the mold
 High cost of mold

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Applications of Permanent Mold Casting

Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to

high volume production and can be
automated accordingly

Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies,

and certain castings for aircraft and missiles

Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,

copper‑base alloys, and cast iron

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Slush Casting

Slush Casting is a special type of permanent

mold casting, where the molten metal is not
allowed to completely solidify. After the desired
wall thickness is obtained, the not yet solidified
molten metal is poured out. This is useful for
making hollow ornamental objects such as
candlesticks, lamps, statues etc.

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Slush Casting
Low-melting-point metals such as lead, zinc, and
tin are used.

The exterior appearance is important, but the

strength and interior geometry of the casting
are minor considerations.

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Low Pressure Casting
Instead of using gravity to assist in the metal pour and
flow in the mold, a low pressure of up to 0.1 MPa (15
psi) gas is applied to the molten metal.

This maintenance of
pressure on the melt
causes complete fill
of the mold and
compensates for any
shrinkage on cooling.

Thin wall castings

can be made.

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Low Pressure Casting
Mechanical properties are superior.

Since no riser is used (unlike a regular

casting), the yield is generally higher since
the metal in the pressurized feed tube is
still molten and the mold is ready for the
next shot right away.

Molten metal is always cleaner

Gas porosity and oxidation defects are

minimized.

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Vacuum Permanent Mold Casting
Similar to the low-pressure permanent mold
casting, where a vacuum is used instead of a
pressure.
Reduced air pressure from the vacuum in the
mold is used to draw the liquid metal into the
cavity (rather than forcing it by pressure)
Thin wall castings can be made as in the low-
pressure permanent mold casting. In addition,
the yields are high since no risers are used.
Advantages: Reduced air porosity, greater
strength.

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Die Casting
A permanent mold casting process in which
molten metal is injected into mold cavity under
high pressure
Pressure is maintained during solidification, then
mold is opened and part is removed
Molds in this casting operation are called dies;
hence the name die casting
Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity
is what distinguishes this from other permanent
mold processes

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Die Casting

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Die Casting Machines
Designed to hold and accurately close two mold
halves and keep them closed while liquid
metal is forced into cavity
Two main types:
1. Hot‑chamber machine
2. Cold‑chamber machine

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects
liquid metal under high pressure into the die
High production rates - 500 parts per hour not
uncommon
Applications limited to low melting‑point metals
that do not chemically attack plunger and other
mechanical components
Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Figure 11.13 Cycle in hot‑chamber casting: (1) with die closed and
plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber
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Prof Simin Nasseri
Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Figure 11.13 Cycle in hot‑chamber casting: (2) plunger forces metal in

chamber to flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and
solidification.
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Prof Simin Nasseri
Cold‑Chamber Die Casting Machine
Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber
from external melting container, and a piston
injects metal under high pressure into die cavity
High production but not usually as fast as
hot‑chamber machines because of pouring step
Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium
alloys
Advantages of hot‑chamber process favor its use
on low melting‑point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Cold‑Chamber Die Casting

Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold‑chamber casting: (1) with die closed

and ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured into the chamber
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Prof Simin Nasseri
Cold‑Chamber Die Casting

Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold‑chamber casting: (2) ram forces metal to

flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification.

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Molds for Die Casting
Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or
maraging steel
Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory
qualities) used to die cast steel and cast iron
Ejector pins required to remove part from die
when it opens
Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to
prevent sticking

Maraging Steel: a strong tough low-carbon martensitic steel which contains up to 25

percent nickel and in which hardening precipitates are formed by aging

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Advantages and Limitations
Advantages of die casting:
 Economical for large production quantities
 Good accuracy and surface finish
 Thin sections are possible
 Rapid cooling provides small grain size and
good strength to casting
Disadvantages:
 Generally limited to metals with low metal
points
 Part geometry must allow removal from die

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Centrifugal Casting
A family of casting processes in which the mold is
rotated at high speed so centrifugal force
distributes molten metal to outer regions of die
cavity
The group includes:
 True centrifugal casting
 Semicentrifugal casting
 Centrifuge casting

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Prof Simin Nasseri
True Centrifugal Casting
Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to
produce a tubular part (we have radial symmetry)
In some operations, mold rotation commences
after pouring rather than before
Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
Outside shape of casting can be round,
octagonal, hexagonal, etc , but inside shape is
(theoretically) perfectly round, due to radially
symmetric forces

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True Centrifugal Casting
Figure 11.15 Setup for true centrifugal casting.

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Semicentrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings
rather than tubular parts
Molds are designed with risers at center to supply
feed metal
Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer
sections than at center of rotation (because of
condensation)

Examples: wheels and pulleys

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Centrifuge Casting

Mold is designed with part cavities located away

from axis of rotation, so that molten metal
poured into mold is distributed to these cavities
by centrifugal force
Used for smaller parts
Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other
centrifugal casting methods

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Furnaces for Casting Processes
Furnaces most commonly used in foundries:
 Cupolas
 Direct fuel‑fired furnaces
 Crucible furnaces
 Electric‑arc furnaces
 Induction furnaces

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Cupolas
Vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with tapping
spout near base
Used only for cast irons
 Although other furnaces are also used, the
largest tonnage of cast iron is melted in
cupolas
The "charge," consisting of iron, coke, flux, and
possible alloying elements, is loaded through a
charging door located less than halfway up
height of cupola

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Direct Fuel‑Fired Furnaces
Small open‑hearth in which charge is heated by
natural gas fuel burners located on side of
furnace
Furnace roof assists heating action by reflecting
flame down against charge
At bottom of hearth is a tap hole to release molten
metal
Generally used for nonferrous metals such as
copper‑base alloys and aluminum

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Crucible Furnaces
Metal is melted without direct contact with burning
fuel mixture
Sometimes called indirect fuel‑fired furnaces
Container (crucible) is made of refractory material
or high‑temperature steel alloy
Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze,
brass, and alloys of zinc and aluminum
Three types used in foundries: (a) lift‑out type, (b)
stationary, (c) tilting

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Crucible Furnaces
Figure 11.19 Three types of crucible furnaces: (a) lift‑out crucible,
(b) stationary pot, from which molten metal must be ladled, and
(c) tilting-pot furnace.

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Electric‑Arc Furnaces
Charge is melted by heat generated from an
electric arc
High power consumption, but electric‑arc
furnaces can be designed for high melting
capacity
Used primarily for melting steel

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Prof Simin Nasseri
 Figure 6.9 Electric arc furnace for steelmaking
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Prof Simin Nasseri
Induction Furnaces
Uses alternating current passing through a coil to
develop magnetic field in metal
Induced current causes rapid heating and melting
Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing
action in liquid metal
Since metal does not contact heating elements,
environment can be closely controlled to produce
molten metals of high quality and purity
Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys are
common applications in foundry work

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Induction Furnace

Figure 11.20 Induction furnace

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Ladles
Last slide of students’ presentations

Moving molten metal from melting furnace to

mold is sometimes done using crucibles
More often, transfer is accomplished by ladles

Figure 11.21 Two common types of ladles: (a) crane ladle, and (b)
two‑man ladle.
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Prof Simin Nasseri
Additional Steps After Solidification

38
Additional Steps After Solidification
 Trimming
 Removing the core
 Surface cleaning
 Inspection
 Repair, if required
 Heat treatment

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Trimming
Removal of sprues, runners, risers,
parting‑line flash, fins, chaplets,
and any other excess metal from
the cast part

Otherwise, hammering, shearing,

hack‑sawing, band‑sawing,
abrasive wheel cutting, or various
torch cutting methods are used

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Removing the Core
If cores have been used, they must be removed
Most cores are bonded, and they often fall out of
casting as the binder deteriorates

In some cases, they are removed by shaking

casting, either manually or mechanically

In rare cases, cores are removed by chemically

dissolving bonding agent

Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Surface Cleaning
Removal of sand from casting surface and
otherwise enhancing appearance of surface

Cleaning methods: tumbling, air‑blasting with

coarse sand grit or metal shot, wire brushing,
polishing and buffing, and chemical pickling (to
give a light finish to by bleaching or painting and wiping)

Surface cleaning is most important for sand

casting
 In many permanent mold processes, this step can
be avoided

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Heat Treatment
Castings are often heat treated to enhance
properties

Reasons for heat treating a casting:

 For subsequent processing operations
such as machining
 To bring out the desired properties for the
application of the part in service

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Casting Quality

44
Casting Quality
There are numerous opportunities for things to go
wrong in a casting operation, resulting in
quality defects in the product

The defects can be classified as follows:

 General defects common to all casting
processes
 Defects related to sand casting process

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Prof Simin Nasseri
 General Defects: Misrun
A casting that has solidified before completely
filling mold cavity

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (a) misrun

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 General Defects: Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is
a lack of fusion due to premature freezing

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut

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 General Defects: Cold Shot
Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules
form and become entrapped in casting

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot

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Prof Simin Nasseri
 General Defects: Shrinkage Cavity
Depression in surface or internal void caused by
solidification shrinkage that restricts amount of
molten metal available in last region to freeze

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity

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Prof Simin Nasseri
 Sand Casting Defects: Sand Blow
Balloon‑shaped gas cavity caused by release of
mold gases during pouring

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (a) sand blow

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Prof Simin Nasseri
 Sand Casting Defects: Pin Holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly
below surface of casting

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (b) pin holes

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Prof Simin Nasseri
 Sand Casting Defects: Penetration
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate
into sand mold or core, causing casting surface to
consist of a mixture of sand grains and metal

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (e) penetration

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Prof Simin Nasseri
 Sand Casting Defects: Mold Shift
A step in cast product at parting line caused by
sidewise relative displacement of cope and drag

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (f) mold shift

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Other defects

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Foundry Inspection Methods
Visual inspection to detect obvious defects
such as misruns, cold shuts, and severe
surface flaws

Dimensional measurements to insure that

tolerances have been met

Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other

tests concerned with quality of cast metal

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Metals for Casting

56
Metals for Casting
Most commercial castings are made of alloys
rather than pure metals
 Alloys are generally easier to cast, and
properties of product are better

Casting alloys can be classified as:

 Ferrous
 Nonferrous

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Prof Simin Nasseri
 Molten Facts
How
Barely Hot Hot Very Hot Too Hot
to?

Temp Below 1000F 1000F-1500F 1500F-2250F 2250F or Higher

Brass, Bronze,
Tin, Lead, Aluminum
Metal Gold, Silver or Iron, Steel
Zinc (786F) 1220 F
Copper

These alloys can Electric Induction

be melted on the Aluminum can furnaces are used
stove in a soup be melted in a for large
can.  coffee can on A gas or electric commercial
Tools Caution: Most low- the BBQ, use crucible furnace foundries.
melting alloys are propane, wood is typical. Cupola furnaces
TOXIC, vent well or charcoal for use coke (refined
and use a fuel. coal) for smaller
respirator. batches.

Thick shirt and

Safety Gloves and pants. "Going into a
Safety Glasses
needs Glasses Glasses and volcano" suit !
gloves.

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Prof Simin Nasseri
 Ferrous Casting Alloys: Cast Iron
Most important of all casting alloys

Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times that of

all other metals combined

Several types: (1) gray cast iron, (2) nodular iron,

(3) white cast iron, (4) malleable iron, and (5) alloy
cast irons

Typical pouring temperatures  1400C (2500F),

depending on composition

Nodular or ductile cast iron: Tiny amounts of magnesium or cerium added to these alloys slow
down the growth of graphite precipitates by bonding to the edges of the graphite planes.

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Ferrous Casting Alloys: Steel
The mechanical properties of steel make it an attractive
engineering material
The capability to create complex geometries makes casting
an attractive shaping process
Difficulties when casting steel:
 Pouring temperature of steel is higher than
for most other casting metals  1650C
(3000F)
 At such temperatures, steel readily oxidizes,
so molten metal must be isolated from air
 Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Aluminum
Generally considered to be very castable
Pouring temperatures low due to low melting temperature of
aluminum
 Tm = 660C (1220F)

Properties:
 Light weight
 Range of strength properties by heat treatment
 Easy to machine

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Copper Alloys

Includes bronze, brass, and aluminum bronze

Copper + Zinc = Brass
Properties: Copper + Tin + other elements= Bronze
Brass,
Bronze?

 Corrosion resistance
 Attractive appearance
 Good bearing qualities

Limitation: high cost of copper

Applications: pipe fittings, marine propeller blades, pump
components, ornamental jewelry

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Zinc Alloys
Highly castable, commonly used in die
casting

Low melting point – melting point of zinc Tm = 419C

(786F)

Good fluidity for ease of casting

Properties:
 Low creep strength, so castings
cannot be subjected to prolonged high
stresses

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Product Design Considerations

64
Product Design Considerations
Geometric simplicity:
 Although casting can be used to produce
complex part geometries, simplifying the
part design usually improves castability

 Avoiding unnecessary complexities:

 Simplifies mold‑making

 Reduces the need for cores

 Improves the strength of the casting

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Product Design Considerations
Corners on the casting:
 Sharp corners and angles should
be avoided, since they are sources
of stress concentrations and may
cause hot tearing and cracks

 Generous fillets should be designed on

inside corners and sharp edges should
be blended

FILLET. Concave corner piece usually used at the intersection of

right-angle surfaces (that would otherwise meet at an angle) on
patterns and core boxes. Fillets in cast shapes lessen the danger
of cracks and avoid "fillet shrinkages."
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Prof Simin Nasseri
Product Design Considerations
Draft Guidelines:
 In expendable mold casting, draft
facilitates removal of pattern from mold
Draft = 1 for sand casting

 In permanent mold casting, purpose is

to aid in removal of the part from the
mold
Draft = 2 to 3 for
permanent mold
processes

 Similar tapers should be allowed if

solid cores are used

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Draft
Minor changes in part design can reduce need for coring

Figure 11.25 Design change to eliminate the need for using a

core: (a) original design, and (b) redesign.

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Product Design Considerations
Dimensional Tolerances and Surface Finish:
 Significant differences in dimensional accuracies and
finishes can be achieved in castings, depending on
process:

Poor dimensional accuracies and finish for

sand casting
Good dimensional accuracies and finish for
die casting and investment casting

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Prof Simin Nasseri
Product Design Considerations
Machining Allowances:
 Almost all sand castings must be machined to
achieve the required dimensions and part
features

 Additional material, called the machining

allowance, is left on the casting in those
surfaces where machining is necessary

 Typical machining allowances for sand

castings are around 1.5 and 3 mm (1/16 and
1/4 in)

Manufacturing Processes
Prof Simin Nasseri