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Introduction

Lecture 5
Properties of Fluids

ESOE 505221 Fluid Mechanics 1 Chapter 2: Properties of Fluids

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Introduction
Any characteristic of a system is called a property.
Familiar: pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m.
Less familiar: viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of
elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, vapor pressure, surface
tension.
Intensive properties are independent of the mass of the
system. Examples: temperature, pressure, and density.
Extensive properties are those whose value depends on
the size of the system. Examples: Total mass, total
volume, and total momentum.
Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific
properties. Examples include specific volume v = V/m
and specific total energy e=E/m.

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Introduction
Intensive properties and
Extensive properties

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Density and Specific Gravity
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume = m/V.
Density has units of kg/m3 [ML-3]

Specific volume is defined as v = 1/= V/m.

For a gas, density depends on temperature and pressure.
At 20oC ___ water density = 998.2 kg/m3
At 80oC ___ water density = 971.8 kg/m3

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Density and Specific Gravity
Specific gravity , or relative density is defined as the ratio
of the density of a substance to the density of some
standard substance at a specified temperature (usually
water at 4°C), i.e., SG=/H20. SG is a dimensionless
quantity.

The specific weight is defined as the weight per unit

volume(force exerted by the earth's gravity upon a unit
volume of the substance), i.e., s = g where g is the
gravitational acceleration.

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Density and Specific Gravity

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Density and Specific Gravity

Practical Applications

Separation Process
Sedimentation
Gas washing

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Density of Ideal Gases

Equation of State: equation for the relationship

between pressure, temperature, and density.
The simplest and best-known equation of state
is the ideal-gas equation.

Pv=RT or P = R T

where P is the absolute pressure, v is the

specific volume, T is the thermodynamic
(absolute) temperature,  is the density, and R is
the gas constant.

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Density of Ideal Gases

The gas constant R is different for each

gas and is determined from R = Ru /M,
where Ru is the universal gas constant
whose value is Ru = 8.314 kJ/kmol · K and
M is the molar mass (also called molecular
weight) of the gas. The values of R and M
for several substances are given in
Tables.

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Density of Ideal Gases

The thermodynamic temperature scale

In the SI is the Kelvin scale, designated by K.
In the English system, it is the Rankine scale, and the
temperature unit on this scale is the Rankine, R.
Various temperature scales are related to each other
by

It is common practice to round the constants 273.15 and

459.67 to 273 and 460, respectively.

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Density of Ideal Gases

For an ideal gas of volume V, mass m, and number of

moles N = m/M, the ideal-gas equation of state can also
be written as
PV = mRT or PV = NRuT.

For a fixed mass m, writing the ideal-gas relation twice

and simplifying, the properties of an ideal gas at two
different states are related to each other by
P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2.

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Density of Ideal Gases

An ideal gas is a hypothetical substance

that obeys the relation Pv = RT.
Ideal-gas equation holds for most gases.
However, dense gases such as water
vapor and refrigerant vapor should not be
treated as ideal gases. Tables should be
consulted for their properties, e.g., Tables
A-3E through A-6E in textbook.

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Density of Ideal Gases

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Vapor Pressure and Cavitation
Vapor Pressure Pv is defined as the
pressure exerted by its vapor in
phase equilibrium with its liquid at a
given temperature
Partial pressure is defined as the
pressure of a gas or vapor in a
mixture with other gases.
If P drops below Pv, liquid is locally
vaporized, creating cavities of vapor.
Vapor cavities collapse when local P
rises above Pv.
Collapse of cavities is a violent
process which can damage
machinery.
Cavitation is noisy, and can cause
structural vibrations.

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Vapor Pressure and Cavitation

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 Viscosity

Viscosity is a
property that
represents the
internal resistance of
a fluid to motion.
The force a flowing
fluid exerts on a body
in the flow direction is
called the drag force,
and the magnitude of
this force depends, in
part, on viscosity.
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 Viscosity

To obtain a relation for

viscosity, consider a fluid
layer between two very
large parallel plates
separated by a distance ℓ
Definition of shear stress is
 = F/A.
Using the no-slip condition,
u(0) = 0 and u(ℓ) = V, the
velocity profile and gradient
are u(y)= Vy/ℓ and
du/dy=V/ℓ

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Viscosity
d  tan d = da/ ℓ = Vdt/ℓ = (du/dy)dt
Rearranging
du/dy= ddt   d/dt or   du/dy
Fluids for which the rate of deformation is proportional to the shear
stress are called Newtonian fluids, such as water, air, gasoline, and
oils. Blood and liquid plastics are examples of non-Newtonian fluids.
In one-dimensional flow, shear stress for Newtonian fluid:
= du/dy
 )is the dynamic viscosity and has units of kg/m·s, N.s/m2, Pa·s, or
poise(10 P = N.s/m2) . [ML-1T-1]

kinematic viscosity( "nu" = /. Two units of kinematic viscosity are

m2/s and stoke. [L2T-1],
1 stoke = 1 cm2/s = 0.0001 m2/s

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Viscosity
Non-Newtonian vs. Newtonian Fluid

The fluid is non-Newtonian if the relation between shear stress and shear
strain rate is non-linear

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Viscosity

Gas vs. Liquid

Typically, as temperature increases, the viscosity will decrease for a liquid,

but will increase for a gas.
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Surface Tension
Surface tension is a property of liquids which is felt at the interface
between the liquid and another fluid (typically a gas).
Surface tension has dimensions of force per unit length, and always
acts parallel to the interface.
Surface molecules are subject to an attractive force from nearby
surface molecules so that the surface is in a state of tension.
A soap bubble is a good example to illustrate the effects of surface
tension.
How does a soap bubble remain spherical in shape? The answer is
that there is a higher pressure inside the bubble than outside, much
like a balloon.
In fact, surface tension in the soap film acts much the same as the
tension in the skin of a balloon.

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Surface Tension
Liquid droplets behave like small
spherical balloons filled with
liquid, and the surface of the
liquid acts like a stretched elastic
membrane under tension.
The pulling force that causes this
is
due to the attractive forces
between molecules
called surface tension s.
Attractive force on surface
molecule is not symmetric.
Repulsive forces from interior
molecules causes the liquid to
minimize its surface area and
attain a spherical shape.

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Surface Tension
A).Droplet:

B).Bubble:

where ΔP is the differential pressures inside

and outside the droplet or bubble,
respectively. When the droplet or bubble is in
the atmosphere, Po is simply atmospheric
pressure. The factor 2 in the force balance for
the bubble is due to the bubble consisting of
a film with two surfaces (inner and outer
surfaces) and thus two circumferences in the
cross section.

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Surface Tension
The pressure difference of a droplet due to surface tension

dWsurface = s dA = s d(4R 2) = 8Rs dR

dWexpansion = Force  Distance =F dR

= (∆PA) dR = 4R2 ∆P dR

dWsurface = dWexpansion

Therefore, ∆Pdroplet = 2s /R,

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Capillary Effect
Capillary effect is the rise or fall of
a liquid in a small-diameter tube.
The curved free surface in the tube
is call the meniscus.
Contact (or wetting) angle ,
defined as the angle that the tangent
to the liquid surface makes with the
solid surface at the point of contact.
Water meniscus curves up because
water is a wetting ( < 90°) fluid
(hydrophilic).
Mercury meniscus curves down
because mercury is a nonwetting (
> 90°) fluid (hydrophobic).

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Capillary Effect
Force balance can describe
magnitude of capillary rise.

W = mg = Vg = g(R2h)

W = Fsurface
→ g(R2h) = 2Rs cos 

Capillary rise:
→ h = 2s cos gR

(R = constant)

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Capillary Effect

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