Chapter 3

Data and Signals

1.1 Copyright © NDSL, Chang Gung University. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Note

To be transmitted, data must be

transformed to electromagnetic signals.

1.2
1.3
 3-1 ANALOG AND DIGITAL

• Data can be analog or digital.

• The term analog data refers to information that is

continuous; digital data refers to information that has
discrete states.

• Analog data take on continuous values. Digital data take

on discrete values.

• Sounds made by human voice is Analog data, this can be

captured by a micro phone and converted to an analog
signal OR sampled and converted to a digital signal
1.4
 Note

• Digital data have discrete states and

take discrete values , e.g. data stored
in computer memory in the form of 0s
and 1s
• This digital data can be converted to a
digital signal or modulated into an
analog signal for transmission across
a medium

1.5
 Analog and Digital Signals
• Signals can be analog or digital.

• Analog signals has infinite many levels

of intensity over a period of time.

• Digital signals can have only a limited

number of values.

1.6
 Figure 3.1 Comparison of analog and digital signals

1.7
 Periodic and Non Periodic(aperiodic)
Signals
• A periodic signal completes a pattern within a
measurable time frame and repeats that pattern
over subsequent identical periods.

• The completion of one full pattern is called a

cycle.

• A non periodic signal changes without

exhibiting a pattern or cycle that repeats over
time.
1.8
 Note

In data communications, we commonly

use periodic analog signals and
nonperiodic digital signals.

1.9
 3-2 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or
composite. A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave,
cannot be decomposed into simpler signals. A composite
periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine
waves.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sine Wave
Wavelength
Time and Frequency Domain
Composite Signals
Bandwidth

1.10
 Sine Wave
• Most fundamental form of periodic
analog signal

• Sine wave can be represented by three

parameters
– Peak Amplitude
– Frequency
– Phase

1.11
 Peak Amplitude
• Peak Amplitude of a signal is the absolute
value of its highest intensity, proportional to
the energy it carries

1.12
 Figure 3.2 A sine wave

1.13
1.14
 Figure 3.3 Two signals with the same phase and frequency, but different
amplitudes

1.15
 Period and Frequency
• Period refers to the amount of time , in seconds , a
signal needs to complete 1 cycle.

• Frequency refers to number of periods in 1 sec

1.16
 Note

Frequency and period are the inverse of

each other.

1.17
 Figure 3.4 Two signals with the same amplitude and phase, but different
frequencies

1.18
 Table 3.1 Units of period and frequency

1.19
 • The voltage of a battery is a constant; this constant
value can be considered a sine wave

• For example, the peak value of an AA battery is

normally 1.5 V.

1.20
 Example 3.3

The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz.

The period of this sine wave can be determined as
follows:

1.21
 Example 3.4

Express a period of 100 ms in microseconds.

Solution
From Table 3.1 we find the equivalents of 1 ms (1 ms is
10−3 s) and 1 s (1 s is 106 μs). We make the following
substitutions:.

1.22
 Example 3.5

The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in

kilohertz?

Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we
calculate the frequency from the period (1 Hz = 10−3
kHz).

1.23
 Note

Frequency is the rate of change with

respect to time.

Change in a short span of time

means high frequency.

Change over a long span of

time means low frequency.

1.24
 Note

If a signal does not change at all, its

frequency is zero.
If a signal changes instantaneously, its
frequency is infinite.

1.25
 Note

Phase describes the position of the

waveform relative to time 0.

Phase is measured in degrees or

radians

1.26
 Figure 3.5 Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,
but different phases

1.27
1.28
 Example 3.6

A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0.

What is its phase in degrees and radians?

Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6
cycle is

1.29
 Figure 3.6 Wavelength and period

1.30
 • Wavelength is the distance a simple signal can
travel in one period.

1.31
 • The propagation speed of electromagnetic signals
depends on the medium and on the frequency of
the signal.

• For example, in a vacuum, light is propagated with

a speed of 3 x 108 m/s.

• That speed is lower in air and even lower in cable.

1.32
 Time and Frequency Domains
• The time-domain plot shows changes in signal
amplitude with respect to time (it is an
amplitude-versus-time plot).

• Phase is not explicitly shown on a time-domain

plot.

1.33
 • To show the relationship between amplitude and
frequency, we can use what is called a frequency-
domain plot.

• A frequency-domain plot is concerned with only the

peak value and the frequency.

• Changes of amplitude during one period are not

shown.

1.34
1.35
 Figure 3.7 The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave

1.36
 Note

A complete sine wave in the time

domain can be represented by one
single spike in the frequency domain.

1.37
 Example 3.7

The frequency domain is more compact and

useful when we are dealing with more than one
sine wave. For example, Figure 3.8 shows three
sine waves, each with different amplitude and
frequency. All can be represented by three
spikes in the frequency domain.

1.38
 Figure 3.8 The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves

1.39
 Note

A single-frequency sine wave is not

useful in data communications;
we need to send a composite signal, a
signal made of many simple sine waves.

1.40
1.41
 Note

According to Fourier analysis, any

composite signal is a combination of
simple sine waves with different
frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.

1.42
1.43
 Note
• If the composite signal is periodic, the
decomposition gives a series of signals
with discrete frequencies(frequencies that
have integer values like 1,2,3,etc)

• if the composite signal is nonperiodic, the

decomposition gives a combination of
sine waves with continuous frequencies
(infinite number of sine waves with
continuous frequencies having real
values).
1.44
 Example 3.8

Figure 3.9 shows a periodic composite signal with

frequency f. This type of signal is not typical of those
found in data communications. We can consider it to be
three alarm systems, each with a different frequency.
The analysis of this signal can give us a good
understanding of how to decompose signals.

1.45
 Figure 3.9 A composite periodic signal

1.46
 Figure 3.10 Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and
frequency domains

1.47
 Example 3.9

Figure 3.11 shows a nonperiodic composite signal. It

can be the signal created by a microphone or a telephone
set when a word or two is pronounced. In this case, the
composite signal cannot be periodic, because that
implies that we are repeating the same word or words
with exactly the same tone.

1.48
 Figure 3.11 The time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal

1.49
 Bandwidth, The

The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal is its

bandwidth.

1.50
 Note

The bandwidth of a composite signal is

the difference between the
highest and the lowest frequencies
contained in that signal.
For example, if a composite signal
contains frequencies between 1000 and
5000, its bandwidth is 5000 - 1000, or
4000

1.51
 Figure 3.12 The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals

1.52
 Example 3.10

If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves

with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what
is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all
components have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then

The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700,
and 900 Hz (see Figure 3.13).
1.53
 Figure 3.13 The bandwidth for Example 3.10

1.54
 Example 3.11

A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest

frequency is 60 Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw
the spectrum if the signal contains all frequencies of the
same amplitude.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then

The spectrum contains all integer frequencies. We show

this by a series of spikes (see Figure 3.14).

1.55
 Figure 3.14 The bandwidth for Example 3.11

1.56
 Example 3.12

A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200

kHz, with a middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak
amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies have an
amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency domain of the
signal.

Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest
at 240 kHz. Figure 3.15 shows the frequency domain
and the bandwidth.

1.57
 Figure 3.15 The bandwidth for Example 3.12

1.58
 3-3 DIGITAL SIGNALS
In addition to being represented by an analog signal,
information can also be represented by a digital signal.
For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage
and a 0 as zero voltage. A digital signal can have more
than two levels. In this case, we can send more than 1 bit
for each level.

Topics discussed in this section:

Bit Rate
Bit Length
Digital Signal as a Composite Analog Signal
Application Layer
1.59
 Figure 3.16 Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the
other
with four signal levels

1.60
 Note

Appendix C reviews information about

Appendix C reviews information about exponential and logarithmic

exponential and functions.

logarithmic functions.

1.61
 Example 3.16

A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are

needed per level? We calculate the number of bits from
the formula

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

1.62
 Example 3.17

A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are

needed per level? We calculate the number of bits by
using the formula. Each signal level is represented by
3.17 bits. However, this answer is not realistic. The
number of bits sent per level needs to be an integer as
well as a power of 2. For this example, 4 bits can
represent one level.

1.63
 Bit Rate
• Most digital signals are nonperiodic, and thus
period and frequency are not appropriate
characteristics.

• Bit rate (instead of frequency)-is used to describe

digital signals. The bit rate is the number of bits
sent in 1s, expressed in bits per second (bps).

1.64
 Example 3.18

Assume we need to download text documents at the rate

of 100 pages per minute. What is the required bit rate of
the channel?
Solution
A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in
each line. If we assume that one character requires 8
bits, the bit rate is

1.65
 Bit Length
• Used for digital signals
• The bit length is the distance one bit occupies on
the transmission medium.
Bit length = propagation speed x bit duration

1.66
 Digital Signal as a Composite
Analog Signal

1.67
1.68
 Digital Signal as a Composite Analog
Signal
• Based on Fourier analysis , A digital signal is a
composite analog signal.
• The bandwidth is infinite.
• A digital signal, in the time domain , comprises
connected vertical and horizontal line segments.
• A vertical line in the time domain means a frequency
of infinity (sudden change in time); a horizontal line
in the time domain means a frequency of zero (no
change in time). Going from a frequency of zero to a
frequency of infinity (and vice versa) implies all
frequencies in between are part of the domain.

1.69
 • Fourier analysis can be used to decompose a
digital signal.
• If the digital signal is periodic, which is rare in data
communications, the decomposed signal has a
frequency domain representation with an infinite
bandwidth and discrete frequencies.
• If the digital signal is nonperiodic, the decomposed
signal still has an infinite bandwidth, but the
frequencies are continuous.

1.70
 Figure 3.17 The time and frequency domains of periodic and nonperiodic
digital signals

1.71
 Transmission of Digital Signals
• We can transmit a digital signal by using
one of two different approaches:
– baseband transmission or
– broadband transmission
(using modulation).

1.72
 Transmission of Digital Signals

Baseband Transmission
(low-pass channel)

1.73
 Baseband Transmission
• Sending a digital signal over a channel without
changing the digital signal to an analog signal.
• Requires a low-pass channel, a channel with
a bandwidth that starts from zero.
• This is the case if we have a dedicated medium
with a bandwidth constituting only one channel.

• For example, the entire bandwidth of a

cable connecting two computers is one single
channel.

1.74
 • we may connect several computers to a bus, but
not allow more than two stations to communicate
at a time.
• Again we have a low-pass channel, and we can
use it for baseband communication.
• Figure 3.20 shows two low-pass channels: one
with a narrow bandwidth and the other with a wide
bandwidth.
• low-pass channel with infinite bandwidth is ideal,
but we cannot have such a channel in real life.
However, we can get close.

1.75
1.76
 Figure 3.18 Baseband transmission

1.77
 Note

A digital signal is a composite analog

signal with an infinite bandwidth.

1.78
 Figure 3.19 Bandwidths of two low-pass channels

1.79
 Figure 3.20 Baseband transmission using a dedicated medium

1.80
 Note

Baseband transmission of a digital

signal that preserves the shape of the
digital signal is possible only if we have
a low-pass channel with an infinite or
very wide bandwidth.

1.81
 Example 3.21

An example of a dedicated channel where the entire

bandwidth of the medium is used as one single channel
is a LAN. Almost every wired LAN today uses a
dedicated channel for two stations communicating with
each other. In a bus topology LAN with multipoint
connections, only two stations can communicate with
each other at each moment in time (timesharing); the
other stations need to refrain from sending data. In a
star topology LAN, the entire channel between each
station and the hub is used for communication between
these two entities. We study LANs in Chapter 14.

1.82
 Note

In baseband transmission, the required

In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is proportional to

bandwidth is proportional the bit rate; to the bit rate;

if we
if weneed to send
need to send bits
bits faster, faster,
we need we need
more bandwidth.

more bandwidth.

1.83
 Broadband Transmission
(Using Modulation)

1.84
 Broadband Transmission (Using Modulation)
• Broadband transmission or modulation means
changing the digital signal to an analog signal for
transmission.
• Bandpass channel is a channel with a bandwidth
that does not start from zero.

• This type of channel is more available than

a low-pass channel.

1.85
 Figure 3.23 Bandwidth of a bandpass channel

1.86
 • Note that a low-pass channel can be considered a
bandpass channel with the lower
frequency starting at zero.

1.87
 Note

If the available channel is a bandpass

channel, we cannot send the digital
signal directly to the channel;
we need to convert the digital signal to
an analog signal before transmission.

1.88
 Figure 3.24 Modulation of a digital signal for transmission on a bandpass
channel

1.89
 Example 3.24

An example of broadband transmission using

modulation is the sending of computer data through a
telephone subscriber line, the line connecting a resident
to the central telephone office. These lines are designed
to carry voice with a limited bandwidth. The channel is
considered a bandpass channel. We convert the digital
signal from the computer to an analog signal, and send
the analog signal. We can install two converters to
change the digital signal to analog and vice versa at the
receiving end. The converter, in this case, is called a
modem which we discuss in detail in Chapter 5.

1.90
 3-4 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

Signals travel through transmission media, which are not

perfect. The imperfection causes signal impairment. This
means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is
not the same as the signal at the end of the medium.
What is sent is not what is received. Three causes of
impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.

Topics discussed in this section:

Attenuation
Distortion
Noise

1.91
 Figure 3.25 Causes of impairment

1.92
 Figure 3.26 Attenuation

1.93
 Example 3.26

Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium

and its power is reduced to one-half. This means that P2
is (1/2)P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power)
can be calculated as

A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half

the power.
1.94
 Example 3.27

A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is

increased 10 times. This means that P2 = 10P1 . In this
case, the amplification (gain of power) can be calculated
as

1.95
 Example 3.28

One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure the

changes in the strength of a signal is that decibel
numbers can be added (or subtracted) when we are
measuring several points (cascading) instead of just two.
In Figure 3.28 a signal travels from point 1 to point 4. In
this case, the decibel value can be calculated as

1.96
 Figure 3.27 Decibels for Example 3.28

1.97
 Distortion

Distortion means that the signal changes its form or

shape

1.98
 Figure 3.28 Distortion

1.99
 Figure 3.29 Noise

1.100
 Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

1.101
 Example 3.31

The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the

noise is 1 μW; what are the values of SNR and SNRdB ?

Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as
follows:

1.102
 Example 3.32

The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel

are

We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.

1.103
 Figure 3.30 Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR

1.104
 3-5 DATA RATE LIMITS

A very important consideration in data communications

is how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a
channel. Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

Topics discussed in this section:

Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
Using Both Limits

1.105
 Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit
Rate

BitRate = 2 x bandwidth x log2L

formula

1.106
 Note

Increasing the levels of a signal may

reduce the reliability of the system.

1.107
 Example 3.34

Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000

Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The
maximum bit rate can be calculated as

1.108
 Example 3.35

Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a

signal with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2
bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

1.109
 Example 3.36

We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with

a bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we
need?
Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either

increase the number of levels or reduce the bit rate. If we
have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64
levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.

1.110
 Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity

Capacity = bandwidth x log2(1 + SNR)

formula

1.111
 Example 3.37

Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value

of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other
words, the noise is so strong that the signal is faint. For
this channel the capacity C is calculated as

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero

regardless of the bandwidth. In other words, we cannot
receive any data through this channel.

1.112
 Example 3.38

We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a

regular telephone line. A telephone line normally has a
bandwidth of 3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually
3162. For this channel the capacity is calculated as

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line
is 34.860 kbps. If we want to send data faster than this,
we can either increase the bandwidth of the line or
improve the signal-to-noise ratio.
1.113
 Example 3.41

We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR

for this channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate
and signal level?

Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper
limit.

1.114
 Example 3.41 (continued)

The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit.

For better performance we choose something lower, 4
Mbps, for example. Then we use the Nyquist formula to
find the number of signal levels.

1.115
 Note

The Shannon capacity gives us the

upper limit; the Nyquist formula tells us
how many signal levels we need.

1.116
 3-6 PERFORMANCE

One important issue in networking is the performance of

the network—how good is it? We discuss quality of
service, an overall measurement of network performance,
in greater detail in Chapter 24. In this section, we
introduce terms that we need for future chapters.

Topics discussed in this section:

Bandwidth
Throughput
Latency (Delay)
Bandwidth-Delay Product
1.117
 Note

In networking, we use the term

bandwidth in two contexts.
❏ The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to
the range of frequencies in a
composite signal or the range of
frequencies that a channel can pass.

❏ The second, bandwidth in bits per

second, refers to the speed of bit
transmission in a channel or link.
1.118
 Example 3.42

The bandwidth of a subscriber line is 4 kHz for voice or

data. The bandwidth of this line for data transmission
can be up to 56,000 bps using a sophisticated modem to
change the digital signal to analog.

1.119
 Example 3.43

If the telephone company improves the quality of the line

and increases the bandwidth to 8 kHz, we can send
112,000 bps by using the same technology as mentioned
in Example 3.42.

1.120
 Throughput
• The throughput is a measure of how fast we can
actually send data through a network.
• Although, at first glance, bandwidth in bits per
second and throughput seem the same,
they are different.
• A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can
only send T bps through this link with T always less
than B.

1.121
 Throughput
• In other words, the bandwidth is a potential
measurement of a link; the throughput is an actual
measurement of how fast we can send data.
• For example, we may have a link with a bandwidth
of 1 Mbps, but the devices connected to the end of
the link may handle only 200 kbps. This means
that we cannot send more than 200 kbps through
this link.

1.122
 • Imagine a highway designed to transmit 1000 cars
per minute from one point to another.
• However, if there is congestion on the road, this
figure may be reduced to 100 cars per minute.
• The bandwidth is 1000 cars per minute; the
throughput is 100 cars per minute.

1.123
 Example 3.44

A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an

average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame
carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the
throughput of this network?

Solution
We can calculate the throughput as

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in

this case.
1.124
 Latency (Delay)
• The latency or delay defines how long it takes for
an entire message to completely
arrive at the destination from the time the first bit is
sent out from the source.
• We can say that latency is made of four
components: propagation time, transmission time,
queuing time and processing delay.

1.125
 Propagation Time
• Propagation time measures the time required for a
bit to travel from the source to the destination.
• The propagation time is calculated by dividing the
distance by the propagation speed.

• The propagation speed of electromagnetic signals

depends on the medium and on the frequency of
the signal.

1.126
 Example 3.45
What is the propagation time if the distance between the
two points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed
to be 2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as

The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic

Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a direct cable between the
source and the destination.

1.127
1.128
 Transmission Time
• there is a time between the first bit leaving the
sender and the last bit arriving at the receiver.
• The first bit leaves earlier and arrives earlier; the
last bit leaves later and arrives later.
• The transmission time of a message
depends on the size of the message and the
bandwidth of the channel.

1.129
1.130
 Example 3.46

What are the propagation time and the transmission

time for a 2.5-kbyte message (an e-mail) if the
bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the
distance between the sender and the receiver is 12,000
km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission time
as shown on the next slide:

1.131
 Example 3.46 (continued)

Note that in this case, because the message is short and

the bandwidth is high, the dominant factor is the
propagation time, not the transmission time. The
transmission time can be ignored.

1.132
 Example 3.47

What are the propagation time and the transmission

time for a 5-Mbyte message (an image) if the bandwidth
of the network is 1 Mbps? Assume that the distance
between the sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and
that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission
times as shown on the next slide.

1.133
 Example 3.47 (continued)

Note that in this case, because the message is very long

and the bandwidth is not very high, the dominant factor
is the transmission time, not the propagation time. The
propagation time can be ignored.

1.134
 Queuing Time
• the time needed for each intermediate or end
device to hold the message before it can be
processed.
• The queuing time is not a fixed factor
• When there is heavy traffic on the network, the
queuing time increases.

1.135
 Bandwidth-Delay Product

1.136
 Figure 3.31 Filling the link with bits for case 1

1.137
 Example 3.48

We can think about the link between two points as a

pipe. The cross section of the pipe represents the
bandwidth, and the length of the pipe represents the
delay. We can say the volume of the pipe defines the
bandwidth-delay product, as shown in Figure 3.33.

1.138
 Figure 3.32 Filling the link with bits in case 2

1.139
 Note

The bandwidth-delay product defines

the number of bits that can fill the link.

1.140
 Figure 3.33 Concept of bandwidth-delay product

1.141