C++ Programming:

From Problem Analysis

to Program Design, Fourth Edition

Chapter 2: Basic Elements of C++

The Basics of a C++ Program

• Computer Program
− A program, is a sequence of statements
whose objective is to accomplish a task
• Programming
− Programming is a process of planning and
creating a program.

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 2

The Basics of a C++ Program

• Function: collection of statements; when

executed, accomplishes something
− May be predefined or userdefined
• Syntax: rules that specify which statements
(instructions) are legal
• Programming language: a set of rules,
symbols, and special words
• Semantic rule: meaning of the instruction
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 3
Comments
• Comments are for the reader, not the compiler
• Two types:
− Single line
// This is a C++ program. It prints the sentence:
// Welcome to C++ Programming.

− Multiple line
/*
You can include comments that can
occupy several lines.
*/

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 4

Special Symbols

• Special symbols

+ ?
- ,
* <=
/ !=
. ==
; >=

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 5

Reserved Words (Keywords)

• Reserved words, keywords, or word symbols

− Include:
• int
• float
• double
• char
• const
• void
• Return etc…

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 6

Identifiers

• Consist of letters, digits, and the underscore

character (_)
• Must begin with a letter or underscore
• C++ is case sensitive
− NUMBER is not the same as number
• Two predefined identifiers are cout and cin
• Unlike reserved words, predefined identifiers
may be redefined, but it is not a good idea

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 7

Identifiers (continued)

• The following are legal identifiers in C++:

− first
− conversion
− payRate

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 8

Whitespaces

• Every C++ program contains whitespaces

− Include blanks, tabs, and newline characters
• Used to separate special symbols, reserved
words, and identifiers
• Proper utilization of whitespaces is important
− Can be used to make the program readable

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 9

Example of C++ program

Ali Saeed 10
Data Types

• a particular kind of data item, as defined by

the values it can take
• C++ data types fall into three categories:

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 11

Simple Data Types

• Three categories of simple data

− Integral: integers (numbers without a decimal)
− Floating-point: decimal numbers
− Enumeration type: user-defined data type

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 12

Simple Data Types (continued)

• Integral data types are further classified into

nine categories:

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 13

Simple Data Types (continued)

• Different compilers may allow different ranges

of values

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 14

int Data Type

• Examples:
-6728
0
78
+763
• Positive integers do not need a + sign
• No commas are used within an integer
− Commas are used for separating items in a list

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 15

bool Data Type

• bool type
− Two values: true and false
− Manipulate logical (Boolean) expressions
• true and false are called logical values
• bool, true, and false are reserved words

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 16

 char Data Type

• The smallest integral data type

• Used for characters: letters, digits, and special
symbols
• Each character is enclosed in single quotes
− 'A', 'a', '0', '*', '+', '$', '&'
• A blank space is a character and is written ' ',
with a space left between the single quotes

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 17

Floating-Point Data Types
(continued)

− float: represents any real number

• Range: -3.4E+38 to 3.4E+38 (four bytes)
− double: represents any real number
• Range: -1.7E+308 to 1.7E+308 (eight bytes)
− On most newer compilers, data types double
and long double are same
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 18
Arithmetic Operators and Operator
Precedence
• C++ arithmetic operators:
− + addition
− - subtraction
− * multiplication
− / division
− % modulus operator
• +, -, *, and / can be used with integral and
floating-point data types
• Operators can be unary or binary
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 19
Order of Precedence

• All operations inside of () are evaluated first

• *, /, and % are at the same level of
precedence and are evaluated next
• + and – have the same level of precedence
and are evaluated last
• When operators are on the same level
− Performed from left to right (associativity)
• 3 * 7 - 6 + 2 * 5 / 4 + 6 means
(((3 * 7) – 6) + ((2 * 5) / 4 )) + 6

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 20

Expressions

• If all operands are integers

− Expression is called an integral expression
• Yields an integral result
• Example: 2 + 3 * 5
• If all operands are floating-point
− Expression is called a floating-point
expression
• Yields a floating-point result
• Example: 12.8 * 17.5 - 34.50

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 21

Mixed Expressions

• Mixed expression:
− Has operands of different data types
− Contains integers and floating-point
• Examples of mixed expressions:
2 + 3.5
6 / 4 + 3.9
5.4 * 2 – 13.6 + 18 / 2

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 22

Mixed Expressions (continued)

• Evaluation rules:
− If operator has same types of operands
• Evaluated according to the type of the operands
− If operator has both types of operands
• Integer is changed to floating-point
• Operator is evaluated
• Result is floating-point
− Entire expression is evaluated according to
precedence rules

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 23

Type Conversion (Casting)

• Implicit type casting: when value of one type

is automatically changed to another type
• Cast operator: provides explicit type
conversion
static_cast<dataTypeName>(expression)
c = (int) a;

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 24

string Type
• Programmer-defined type supplied in
ANSI/ISO Standard C++ library
• Sequence of zero or more characters
string str;
• Enclosed in double quotation marks str="hello";
cout<<str[0];
• Null: a string with no characters
• Each character has relative position in string
− Position of first character is 0
• Length of a string is number of characters in it
− Example: length of "William Jacob" is 13
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 25
Load Data

• Data must be loaded into main memory

before it can be manipulated
• Storing data in memory is a two-step process:
− Instruct computer to allocate memory
− Include statements to put data into memory

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 26

Allocating Memory with Constants
and Variables
• Named constant: memory location whose
content can’t change during execution
• The syntax to declare a named constant is:

• In C++, const is a reserved word

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 27

Allocating Memory with Constants
and Variables (continued)
• Variable: memory location whose content
may change during execution
• The syntax to declare a named constant is:

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 28

Putting Data into Variables

• Ways to place data into a variable:

− Use C++’s assignment statement
− Use input (read) statements

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 29

Assignment Statement

• The assignment statement takes the form:

• Expression is evaluated and its value is

assigned to the variable on the left side
• In C++, = is called the assignment operator

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 30

Assignment Statement (continued)

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 31

Saving and Using the Value of an
Expression
• To save the value of an expression:
− Declare a variable of the appropriate data type
− Assign the value of the expression to the
variable that was declared
• Use the assignment statement
• Wherever the value of the expression is
needed, use the variable holding the value

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 32

Declaring & Initializing Variables

• Variables can be initialized when declared:

int first=13, second=10;
char ch=' ';
double x=12.6;
• All variables must be initialized before they
are used
− But not necessarily during declaration

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 33

Input (Read) Statement

• cin is used with >> to gather input

• The stream extraction operator is >>

• For example, if miles is a double variable
cin >> miles;
− Causes computer to get a value of type
double
− Places it in the variable miles

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 34

Input (Read) Statement (continued)

• Using more than one variable in cin allows

more than one value to be read at a time
• For example, if feet and inches are
variables of type int, a statement such as:
cin >> feet >> inches;
− Inputs two integers from the keyboard
− Places them in variables feet and inches
respectively

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 35

Input (Read) Statement (continued)

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 36

Variable Initialization

• There are two ways to initialize a variable:

int feet;
− By using the assignment statement
feet = 35;
− By using a read statement
cin >> feet;

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 37

Increment & Decrement Operators

• Increment operator: increment variable by 1

− Pre-increment: ++variable
− Post-increment: variable++
• Decrement operator: decrement variable by 1
− Pre-decrement: --variable
− Post-decrement: variable—
• What is the difference between the following?
x = 5; x = 5;
y = ++x; y = x++;
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 38
Output
• The syntax of cout and << is:

− Called an output statement

• The stream insertion operator is <<
• Expression evaluated and its value is printed
at the current cursor position on the screen

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 39

Output (continued)

• A manipulator is used to format the output

− Example: endl causes insertion point to move
to beginning of next line

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 40

Output (continued)

• The new line character is '\n'

− May appear anywhere in the string
cout << "Hello there.";
cout << "My name is James.";
• Output:
Hello there.My name is James.
cout << "Hello there.\n";
cout << "My name is James.";
• Output :
Hello there.
My name is James.
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 41
Output (continued)

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 42

Preprocessor Directives
• C++ has a small number of operations
• Many functions and symbols needed to run a C+
+ program are provided as collection of libraries
• Every library has a name and is referred to by a
header file
• Preprocessor directives are commands supplied
to the preprocessor
• All preprocessor commands begin with #
• No semicolon at the end of these commands

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 43

Preprocessor Directives
(continued)
• Syntax to include a header file:

• For example:

#include <iostream>

− Causes the preprocessor to include the

header file iostream in the program

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 44

namespace and Using cin and
cout in a Program
• cin and cout are declared in the header file
iostream, but within std namespace
• To use cin and cout in a program, use the
following two statements:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 45

Using the string Data Type in a
Program
• To use the string type, you need to access
its definition from the header file string
• Include the following preprocessor directive:
#include <string>

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 46

Creating a C++ Program

• C++ program has two parts:

− Preprocessor directives
− The program
• Preprocessor directives and program
statements constitute C++ source code (.cpp)
• Compiler generates object code (.obj)
• Executable code is produced and saved in a
file with the file extension .exe

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 47

Creating a C++ Program
(continued)
• A C++ program is a collection of functions,
one of which is the function main
• The first line of the function main is called the
heading of the function:
int main()
• The statements enclosed between the curly
braces ({ and }) form the body of the function
− Contains two types of statements:
• Declaration statements
• Executable statements

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 48

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 49
Creating a C++ Program
(continued)
Sample Run:
Line 9: firstNum = 18
Line 10: Enter an integer: 15

Line 13: secondNum = 15

Line 15: The new value of firstNum = 60

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 50

Program Style and Form

• Every C++ program has a function main

• It must also follow the syntax rules
• Other rules serve the purpose of giving
precise meaning to the language

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 51

Syntax

• Errors in syntax are found in compilation

int x; //Line 1
int y //Line 2: error
double z; //Line 3

y = w + x; //Line 4: error

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 52

Use of Blanks
• In C++, you use one or more blanks to
separate numbers when data is input
• Used to separate reserved words and
identifiers from each other and from other
symbols
• Must never appear within a reserved word or
identifier

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 53

Use of Semicolons, Brackets, and
Commas
• All C++ statements end with a semicolon
− Also called a statement terminator
• { and } are not C++ statements
• Commas separate items in a list

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 54

Semantics

• Possible to remove all syntax errors in a

program and still not have it run
• Even if it runs, it may still not do what you
meant it to do
• For example,
2 + 3 * 5 and (2 + 3) * 5
are both syntactically correct expressions, but
have different meanings

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 55

Naming Identifiers

• Identifiers can be self-documenting:

− CENTIMETERS_PER_INCH
• Avoid run-together words :
− annualsale
− Solution:
• Capitalize the beginning of each new word
• annualSale
• Inserting an underscore just before a new word
• annual_sale

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 56

Prompt Lines

• Prompt lines: executable statements that

inform the user what to do
cout << "Please enter a number between 1 and 10 and "
<< "press the return key" << endl;
cin >> num;

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 57

Documentation

• A well-documented program is easier to

understand and modify
• You use comments to document programs
• Comments should appear in a program to:
− Explain the purpose of the program
− Identify who wrote it
− Explain the purpose of particular statements

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 58

Form and Style

• Consider two ways of declaring variables:

− Method 1
int feet, inch;
double x, y;
− Method 2
int a,b;double x,y;
• Both are correct; however, the second is hard
to read

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 59

More on Assignment Statements

• C++ has special assignment statements

called compound assignments
+=, -=, *=, /=, and %=
• Example:
x *= y;

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 60

Programming Example:
Convert Length
• Write a program that takes as input a given
length expressed in feet and inches
− Convert and output the length in centimeters
• Input: length in feet and inches
• Output: equivalent length in centimeters
• Lengths are given in feet and inches
• Program computes the equivalent length in
centimeters
• One inch is equal to 2.54 centimeters
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 61
Programming Example: Convert
Length (continued)
• Convert the length in feet and inches to all
inches:
− Multiply the number of feet by 12
− Add given inches
• Use the conversion formula (1 inch = 2.54
centimeters) to find the equivalent length in
centimeters

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 62

Programming Example: Convert
Length (continued)
• The algorithm is as follows:
− Get the length in feet and inches
− Convert the length into total inches
− Convert total inches into centimeters
− Output centimeters

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 63

Programming Example: Variables
and Constants
• Variables
int feet; //variable to hold given feet
int inches; //variable to hold given inches
int totalInches; //variable to hold total inches
double centimeters; //variable to hold length in
//centimeters

• Named Constant
const double CENTIMETERS_PER_INCH = 2.54;
const int INCHES_PER_FOOT = 12;

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 64

Programming Example: Main
Algorithm
• Prompt user for input
• Get data
• Echo the input (output the input)
• Find length in inches
• Output length in inches
• Convert length to centimeters
• Output length in centimeters

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 65

Programming Example: Putting It
Together
• Program begins with comments
• System resources will be used for I/O
• Use input statements to get data and output
statements to print results
• Data comes from keyboard and the output will
display on the screen
• The first statement of the program, after
comments, is preprocessor directive to
include header file iostream
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 66
Programming Example: Putting It
Together (continued)
• Two types of memory locations for data
manipulation:
− Named constants
• Usually put before main
− Variables
• This program has only one function (main),
which will contain all the code
• The program needs variables to manipulate
data, which are declared in main

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 67

Programming Example: Body of
the Function
• The body of the function main has the
following form:
int main ()
{
declare variables
statements
return 0;
}

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 68

Programming Example: Writing a
Complete Program
• Begin the program with comments for
documentation
• Include header files
• Declare named constants, if any
• Write the definition of the function main

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 69

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 70
Programming Example: Sample
Run

Enter two integers, one for feet, one for inches: 15 7

The numbers you entered are 15 for feet and 7 for inches.
The total number of inches = 187
The number of centimeters = 474.98

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 71

Summary
• C++ program: collection of functions where
each program has a function called main
• Identifier consists of letters, digits, and
underscores, and begins with letter or
underscore
• The arithmetic operators in C++ are addition
(+), subtraction (-),multiplication (*), division (/),
and modulus (%)
• Arithmetic expressions are evaluated using the
precedence associativity rules
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 72
Summary (continued)
• All operands in an integral expression are
integers and all operands in a floating-point
expression are decimal numbers
• Mixed expression: contains both integers and
decimal numbers
• Use the cast operator to explicitly convert
values from one data type to another
• A named constant is initialized when declared
• All variables must be declared before used

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 73

Summary (continued)

• Use cin and stream extraction operator >> to

input from the standard input device
• Use cout and stream insertion operator <<
to output to the standard output device
• Preprocessor commands are processed
before the program goes through the
compiler
• A file containing a C++ program usually ends
with the extension .cpp

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Fourth Edition 74