Supervised by

Ass. Prof. Dr. Mohammed Najim Abd-allah

Prepared by
Areej rebat abed Duaa mahmmod
20-1 INTERNETWORKING

Outline :
• Need for Network Layer .
• Internet as a Datagram Network .
• Internet as a Connectionless Network .

20.2
Figure 20.1 Links between two hosts

20.3
Figure 20.2 Network layer in an internetwork

20.4
Figure 20.3 Network layer at the source, router, and destination

20.5
Figure 20.3 Network layer at the source, router, and destination (continued)

20.6
Packet Switching
Data transmitted in small packets
Typically less than 1500 bytes (why?)
Longer messages split into series of packets
Each packet contains a portion of user data plus some
control info
Control info
Routing (addressing) info
Packets are received, stored briefly (buffered) and past on
to the next node
Store and forward
Use of Packets
Switching Technique
Station breaks long message into packets
Packets sent one at a time to the network
Packets handled in two ways
Datagram
Virtual circuit
Datagram
Each packet treated independently
Packets can take any practical route
Packets may arrive out of order
Packets may go missing
Up to receiver to re-order packets and recover from
missing packets
Datagram
Diagram
Virtual Circuit
Preplanned route established before any packets
sent
Call request and call accept packets establish
connection (handshake)
Each packet contains a virtual circuit identifier
instead of destination address
No routing decisions required for each packet
Clear request to drop circuit
Not a dedicated path
Virtual
Circuit
Diagram
Virtual Circuits v Datagram
Virtual circuits
Network can provide sequencing and error control
Packets are forwarded more quickly
 No routing decisions to make
Less reliable
 Loss of a node looses all circuits through that node
Datagram
No call setup phase
 Better if few packets
More flexible
 Routing can be used to avoid congested parts of the network
Note

Switching at the network layer in the

Internet uses the datagram approach to
packet switching.

20.15
Note

Communication at the network layer in

the Internet is connectionless.

20.16
20-2 IPv4

The Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the delivery

mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols.

Topics discussed in this section:

Datagram
Fragmentation
Checksum
Options
20.17
Figure 20.4 Position of IPv4 in TCP/IP protocol suite

20.18
Note

IPv4 is an unreliable and connectionless

datagram protocol – a best effort
delivery
Best effort means that IPv4 provides no
error control (except for error detection
on the header) or flow control
IPv4 does its best to get a transmission
through to its destination, but with no
guarantees
20.19
Figure 20.5 IPv4 datagram format

20.20
IPv4 Datagram Format
Version (VER): version of the IP protocol. Currently,
the version is 4.
Header length (HLEN): the total length of the
datagram header in 4-byte words.
Services: service type or differentiated services (not
used now).
Total length: total length (header plus data) of the
datagram in bytes.
Total length of data = total length – header length

20.21
IPv4 Datagram Format
Identification: used in fragmentation (discussed
later).
Flags: used in fragmentation (discussed later).
Fragmentation offset: used in fragmentation
(discussed later).
Time to live: it is used to control the maximum
number hops visited by the datagram.
Protocol: defines the higher-level protocol that
uses the services of the IPV4 layer.
20.22
IPv4 Datagram Format
Checksum: 1’s compliment checksum (introduced in
Chapter 10).
Source address: is the IPv4 address of the source.
Destination address: is the IPv4 address of the
source.

20.23
Note

The total length field defines the total

length of the datagram including the
header.

20.24
Figure 20.8 Protocol field and encapsulated data

20.25
Table 20.4 Protocol values

20.26
 Example 20.1

An IPv4 packet has arrived with the first 8 bits as shown:

01000010
The receiver discards the packet. Why?

Solution
There is an error in this packet. The 4 leftmost bits (0100)
show the version, which is correct. The next 4 bits (0010)
show an invalid header length (2 × 4 = 8). The minimum
number of bytes in the header must be 20. The packet has
been corrupted in transmission.

20.27
 Example 20.2

In an IPv4 packet, the value of HLEN is 1000 in binary.

How many bytes of options are being carried by this
packet?

Solution
The HLEN value is 8, which means the total number of
bytes in the header is 8 × 4, or 32 bytes. The first 20 bytes
are the base header, the next 12 bytes are the options.

20.28
 Example 20.3

In an IPv4 packet, the value of HLEN is 5, and the value

of the total length field is 0x0028. How many bytes of
data are being carried by this packet?

Solution
The HLEN value is 5, which means the total number of
bytes in the header is 5 × 4, or 20 bytes (no options). The
total length is 40 bytes, which means the packet is
carrying 20 bytes of data (40 − 20).

20.29
20.30
Figure 20.9 Maximum transfer unit (MTU)

20.31
Fields Related to Fragmentation
Identification: identifies a datagram originating
from the source host. A combination of the
identification and source address must uniquely
define a datagram as it leaves the source node.
Flags: see next slide.
Fragmentation offset: is the offset of the data in the
original datagram measured in units of 8 bytes.

20.32
Figure 20.10 Flags (3 bits) used in fragmentation

• first bit: reserved (not used)

• second bit: = 1 requires the packet not to be fragmented
drops the packet if it is > MTU

• third bit: =1 more fragmented packets later

=0 the last fragmented packet

20.33
Figure 20.11 Fragmentation example

20.34
1060

20.35
 IPv4 Checksum

• IPv4 checksum use the 1’s compliment method

(chapter 10)
• Checksum only computes for IP header, not data
• Upper layer has checksum for data portion
• Header always changes in each router
• Header is chunked to 16-bit sections for computing

20.36
Figure 20.13 Example of checksum calculation in IPv4

20.37
20-3 IPv6

The network layer protocol in the TCP/IP protocol

suite is currently IPv4. Although IPv4 is well designed,
data communication has evolved since the inception of
IPv4 in the 1970s. IPv4 has some deficiencies that
make it unsuitable for the fast-growing Internet.

Topics discussed in this section:

Advantages
Packet Format
Extension Headers

20.38
IPv6: Advantages
Larger address space.
Better header format.
New options.
Allowance for extensions.
Support for resource allocation.
Support for more security.
Figure 20.15 IPv6 datagram header and payload

20.40
Figure 20.16 Format of an IPv6 datagram

Priority
Protocol

20.41
Table 20.9 Comparison between IPv4 and IPv6 packet headers

20.42
20-4 TRANSITION FROM IPv4 TO IPv6

Because of the huge number of systems on the

Internet, the transition from IPv4 to IPv6 cannot
happen suddenly. It takes a considerable amount of
time before every system in the Internet can move from
IPv4 to IPv6. The transition must be smooth to prevent
any problems between IPv4 and IPv6 systems.

Topics discussed in this section:

Dual Stack
Tunneling
Header Translation
20.43
Figure 20.18 Three transition strategies

20.44
Figure 20.19 Dual stack

Host uses DNS query result to determine which IP to use

20.45
Figure 20.20 Tunneling strategy

Popular used right now in many countries

20.46
Figure 20.21 Header translation strategy

20.47