THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a

multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of
network communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
Note:
◦ ISO is the organization.
◦ OSI is the model.

2.1
The OSI model is a layered framework for the design
of network systems that allows communication
between all types of computer systems. It consists of
seven sep­arate but related layers, each of which
defines a part of the process of moving data across a
network. An understanding of the fundamentals of
the OSI model provides a solid basis for exploring
data communications.
2.2
Seven layers of the OSI model

2.3
The interaction between layers in the OSI
model

2.4
In developing the model, the designers distilled the process of
transmitting data to its most fundamental elements. They identified
which networking functions had related uses and collected those
functions into discrete groups that became the layers. Each layer defines
a family of functions distinct from those of the other layers. By defining
and localizing functionality in this fashion, the designers created an
architecture that is both comprehensive and flexible. Most importantly,
the OSI model allows complete interoperability between otherwise
incompatible systems.

2.5
Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the services of
the layer just below it. Layer 3, for example, uses the services
provided by layer 2 and provides services for layer 4. Between
machines, layer x on one machine communicates with layer x
on another machine. This communication is governed by an
agreed-upon series of rules and conventions called protocols.
The processes on each machine that communicate at a given
layer are called peer-to-peer processes. Communication
between machines is therefore a peer-to-peer process using
the protocols appropriate to a given layer.
2.6
 Peer-to-Peer Processes
At the physical layer, communication is direct, device A sends a
stream of bits to device B (through intermediate nodes). At the
higher layers, however, com­munication must move down through
the layers on device A, over to device B, and then back up through
the layers. Each layer in the sending device adds its own
information to the message it receives from the layer just above it
and passes the whole package to the layer just below it.

2.7
At layer 1 the entire package is converted to a form
that can be transmitted to the receiving device. At
the receiving machine, the message is unwrapped
layer by layer, with each process receiving and
removing the data meant for it. For example, layer 2
removes the data meant for it, then passes the rest
to layer 3. Layer 3 then removes the data meant for it
and passes the rest to layer 4, and so on.
2.8
Interfaces Between Layers

The passing of the data and network information

down through the layers of the send­ing device and
back up through the layers of the receiving device is
made possible by an interface between each pair of
adjacent layers. Each interface defines the informa­
tion and services a layer must provide for the layer
above it.
2.9
Well-defined interfaces and layer functions provide
modularity to a network. As long as a layer provides
the expected services to the layer above it, the
specific implementation of its functions can be
modified or replaced without requiring changes to
the surrounding layers.

2.10
 Organization of the Layers
The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to three
subgroups. Layers 1, 2, and 3 (physical, data link, and network
layers) are the network support layers; they deal with the
physical aspects of moving data from one device to another
(such as electrical specifications, physical connections,
physical addressing, and transport timing and reliability).
Layers 5, 6, and 7 (session, presentation, and application-can
be of as the user support layers; they allow
interoperability among unrelated software systems. 2.11
Layer 4, the transport layer, links the two subgroups and
ensures that what the lower layers have transmitted is in a
form that the upper layers can use. The upper OSI layers are
almost always implemented in software and lower layers are a
combination of hardware and software, except for the
physical layer, which is mostly hardware.

2.12
Exchange using the OSI Model

2.13
D7 means the data unit at layer 7, D6 means the data
unit at layer 6, and so on. The process starts at layer
7 (the application layer), then moves from layer to
layer in descending, sequential order. At each layer, a
header, or possibly a trailer, can be added to the data
unit.Commonly, the trailer is added only at layer 2.

2.14
When the formatted data unit passes through the physical
layer (layer 1), it is changed into an electromagnetic signal and
transported along a physical link. Upon reaching its
destination, the signal passes into layer 1 and is transformed
back into digital form. The data units then move back up
through the OSI layers. As each block of data reaches the next
higher layer, the headers and trailers attached to it at the
corresponding sending layer are removed, and actions
appropriate to that layer are taken. By the time it reaches
layer 7, the message is again in a form appropriate to the
application and is made available to the recipient. 2.15
 Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for:
•The movement of individual bits from one hop (node) to the
next
•The physical characteristics of interfaces and medium-the
physical layer defines the characteristics of the interface
between the devices and the transmission medium. It also
defines the type of transmission medium.
•Representation of bits-the physical layer data consists of a
stream of bits (sequence of 0s or 1s) with no interpretation. To
be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals (electrical or
optical). The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how
0s and 1 s are changed to signals).

2.16
• Data rate/transmission rate- the physical
layer defines the number of bits sent each
second.

• Synchronization of bits-The sender and

receiver not only must use the same bit rate
but also must be synchronized at the bit level.
The sender and the receiver clocks must be
synchronized.
• Line configuration
• Physical topology
• Transmission mode
2.17
 Data Link Layer
The data link layer is responsible for:
• Moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.
•Framing - The data link layer divides the stream of bits
received from the network layer into manageable data
units called frames.
•Physical addressing- If frames are to be distributed to
different systems on the network, the data link layer adds
a header to the frame to define the sender and/or
receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended for a
system outside the sender's network, the receiver
address is the address of the device that connects the
network to the next one.

2.18
• Flow control- If the rate at which the data is being
absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate at which
the data is being produced by the sender, the data link
layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid
overwhelming the receiver.

2.19
•Error control- The data link layer adds reliability to
the physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect
and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a
mecha­nism to recognize duplicate frames. Error
control is normally achieved through a trailer added
to the end of the frame.
•Access control- When two or more devices are
connected to the same link, data link layer protocols
are necessary to determine which device has control
over the link at any given time.

2.20
Hop-to-hop Delivery

2.21
To send data from A to F, three partial deliveries are
made:
1.The data link layer at A sends a frame to the data
link layer at B (a router).
2.The data link layer at B sends a new frame to the
data link layer at E.
3.The data link layer at E sends a new frame to the
data link layer at F.

4.Note that the frames that are exchanged between the three
nodes have different values in the headers. The frame from A
to B has B as the destination address and A as the source
address. The frame from B to E has E as the destination
address and B as the source address. The frame from E to F
has F as the destination address and E as the source address
2.22
Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for :
•source-to-destination delivery of a packet,
possibly across multiple networks (links).
Whereas the data link layer oversees the
delivery of the packet between two systems
on the same network (links), the network layer
ensures that each packet gets from its point of
origin to its final destination.

2.23
• Logical addressing-the physical addressing
implemented by the data link layer handles the
addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the
network boundary, there is need of another
addressing system to help distinguish the source
and destination systems. The network layer adds a
header to the packet coming from the upper layer
that, among other things, includes the logical
addresses of the sender and receiver.

2.24
•Routing-when independent networks or links are
connected to create internetworks (network of
networks) or a large network, the connecting devices
(called routers) route the packets to their final
destination. One of the func­tions of the network
layer is to provide this mechanism.

2.25
Source-to-destination delivery

2.26
Transport layer
The transport layer is responsible for:

•Process-to-process delivery of the entire mes­sage-

A process is an application program running on a
host. Whereas the network layer oversees source-to-
destination delivery of individual packets, it does not
recognize any relationship between those packets.

2.27
It treats each one independently, as though each
piece belonged to a separate message. The transport
layer, on the other hand, ensures that the whole
message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both
error control and flow control at the source-to-
destination level.

2.28
• Service-point addressing - Computers often run
several programs at the same time. For this reason,
source-to-destination delivery means delivery not
only from one computer to the next but also from a
specific process (running program) on one
computer to a specific process (running program)
on the other.

2.29
The transport layer header must therefore include a
type of address called a service-point address (or
port address). The network layer gets each packet to
the correct computer; the transport layer gets the
entire message to the correct process on that
computer.

2.30
• Segmentation and Reassembly

2.31
A message is divided into transmittable segments,
with each segment containing a sequence number.
These numbers enable the trans­port layer to
reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the
destination and to identify and replace packets that
were lost in transmission.
•Connection control - The transport layer can be
either connectionless or connection­ oriented. A
connectionless transport layer treats each segment as
an independent packet and delivers it to the transport
layer at the destination machine. A connection­
oriented transport layer makes a connection with the
transport layer at the destina­tion machine first before
delivering the packets. After all the whole message is
transferred, the connection is terminated.
2.32
• Flow control - Like the data link layer, the transport
layer is responsible for flow control. However, flow
control at this layer is performed end to end rather
than across a single link.

• Error control- Like the data link layer, the transport

layer is responsible for error control. However, error
control at this layer is performed process-to­ process
rather than across a single link. The sending
transport layer makes sure that the entire message
arrives at the receiving transport layer without error
(damage, loss, or duplication). Error correction is
usually achieved through retransmission.
2.33
Reliable process-to-process delivery
of a message by the transport layer

2.34
 Session layer

The session layer is responsible for:

•Dialog control and synchronization - The services

provided by the first three layers (physical, data link,
and network) are not sufficient for some processes.
The session layer is the network dialog controller. It
establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the
interaction among communicating systems.
2.35
• Dialog control -the session layer allows two systems
to enter into a dialog.
• Synchronization-the session layer allows a process to
add checkpoints, or syn­chronization points, to a
stream of data. For example, if a system is sending a
file of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert checkpoints
after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page
unit is received and acknowledged independently. In
this case, if a crash happens during the transmission
of page 523, the only pages that need to be resend
after system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages
previous to 501 need not to be resent.
2.36
Session layer

2.37
Presentation layer

The presentation layer is responsible for:

•Translation of data - The processes (running
programs) in two systems are usually exchang­ing
information in the form of character strings, numbers,
and so on. The informa­tion must be changed to bit
streams before being transmitted. Because different
computers use different encoding systems, the
presentation layer is responsible for interoperability
between these different encoding methods.

2.38
The presentation layer at the sender changes the
information from its sender-dependent format into a
common format. The presentation layer at the
receiving machine changes the common format into
its receiver-dependent format.
•Encryption-to carry sensitive information, a system
must be able to ensure privacy. Encryption means that
the sender transforms the original information to
another form and sends the resulting message out
over the network. Decryption reverses the original
process to transform the message back to its original
form.
2.39
• Compression - Data compression reduces the
number of bits contained in the information. Data
compression becomes particularly important in the
transmission of multimedia such as text, audio, and
video.

2.40
Presentation layer

2.41
Application layer

The application layer is responsible for

•providing services to the user - The application
layer enables the user, whether human or software,
to access the net­work. It provides user interfaces and
support for services such as electronic mail, remote
file access and transfer, shared database
management, and other types of distrib­uted
information services.

2.42
Application year

2.43
Summary of layers

2.44