Materials for making

concrete-I cement
CHAPTER 5
 Introduction
Assyrians and Babylonians were perhaps
the first to use clay as cementing material.
In ancient monuments, forts, places of
worship and defence structures, stones have
been invariably used as a construction
material with lime as the binder.
 Portland Cement
It is a cementing material
resembling a natural stone
quarried from Portland in U.K.
Portland cement may be defined as
a product obtained by finely
pulverizing clinker produced by
calcining to incipient fusion, an
intimate and properly
proportioned mixture of
argillaceous and calcareous
materials.
 Physical Method of Grade
Requirement Testing
33 43 53
1. Fineness (Sp. Blaine’s air
Surface in m^2 permissibility 225 225 225
/kg)
Le Chatelier 10mm 10mm 10mm
2. Soundness Apparatus
Auotclave 0.8% 0.8% 0.8%
3. Setting time
Initial (min) Vicat 30 30 30
Final (max) Apparatus 600 600 600
4. Compressive
strenght (Mpa)
not less than
72 ± 1 hr 16 23 27
168 ± 2 hr 22 33 37
672 ± 4 hr 33 43 53
IS:10262 has classified the OPC grade-wise from A to F
based on 28 day compressive strength as follows.

Category Stength (Mpa)

A 32.5 – 37.5
B 37.5 – 42.5
C 42.5 – 47.5
D 47.5 – 52.5
E 52.5 – 57.5
F 57.5 – 62.5
Accordingly the 33, 43 and 53 grades of cement
correspond to categories A, C and E, respectively.
However, most of the 43-grade cements available in the
market fall in category D and that 53-grade cements in
category F.
Chemical Composition of Raw
Materials
Composition of Cement

The principal mineral

compounds in Portland Formula Name Symbol
Cement
1. Tricalcium silicate 3CaO.SiO2 Alite C3S
2. Dicalcium silicate 2CaO.SiO2 Belite C2S
3. Tricalcium aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 Celite C3A
4. Tetracalcium alumino ferrite 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 Felite C4AF
Tricalcium Silicate
- is supposed to be the best cementing material and
is well burnt cement. It is about 25-50% (normally
about 40 per cent) of cement. It renders the
clinker easier to grind, increases resistance to
freezing and thawing, hydrates rapidly generating
high heat and develops an early hardness and
strength.
Dicalcium Silicate
- is about 25-40% (normally about 32 per cent) of
cement. It hydrates and hardens slowly and takes long
time to add to the strength (after a year or more). It
imparts resistance to chemical attack. Raising of C2S
content renders clinker harder to grind, reduces early
strength, decreases resistance to freezing and thawing
at early ages and decreases heat of hydration.
Tricalcium Aluminate
- is about 5-11% (normally about 10.5 per cent) of
cement. It rapidly reacts with water and is responsible
for flash set of finely grounded clinker. The rapidity of
action is regulated by the addition of 2-3% of gypsum at
the time of grinding cement. Tricalcium aluminate is
responsible for the initial set, high heat of hydration
and has greater tendency to volume changes causing
cracking.
Tetracalcium alumino ferrite
- is about 8–14% (normally about 9 per cent) of
cement. It is responsible for flash set but
generates less heat. It has poorest cementing
value. Raising the C4AF content reduces the
strength slightly.
Calculation of Compound Composition of
Portland Cement
 Bogue developed a method for calculating the

compound composition from the oxide analysis

of a cement. This method is based upon cooling
of the clinker at such rate that equilibrium
is maintained. Although equilibrium does not
usually obtain in commercial operations,
valuable information can be derived from such
calculations
Hydration of Cement
The chemical reaction between cement and water

is known as hydration of cement. The reaction

takes place between the active components of
cement (C4AF, C3A, C3S and C2S) and water. The
factors responsible for the physical
properties of concrete are the extent of
hydration of cement and the resultant
microstructure of the hydrated cement.
Rate of Hydration
Water Requirement of Water Hydration
About an average 23 per cent (24 per cent C3S, 21 per

cent C2S) of water by weight of cement is required for

complete hydration of Portland cement. This water
combines chemically with the cement compounds and is
known as bound water. Some quantity of water, about 15
per cent by weight of cement, is required to fill the
cement gel pores and is known as gel water. Therefore,
a total of 38 per cent of water by weight of cement is
required to complete the chemical reaction.
Manufacture of Cement
Calcareous and argillaceous raw materials are

used in the manufacture of Portland cement.

The calcareous materials used are cement
rock, limestone, marl, chalk and marine
shell. The argillaceous materials consist of
silicates of alumina in the form of clay,
shale, slate and blast furnace slag.
Dry Process - adopted when
the raw materials are quite
hard. The process is slow and
the product is costly.
Limestone and clay are ground
to fine powder separately and
are mixed. Water is added to
make a thick paste.
Wet Process - The operations
in the wet process of cement
manufacture are mixing, burning
and grinding. The crushed raw
materials are fed into ball
mill (Fig. 5.6) and a little
water is added. On operating
the ball mill, the steel balls
in it pulverize the raw
materials which form a slurry
with water.
Comparison of Wet and Dry Process
The chief advantages of the wet process are the low
cost of excavating and grinding raw materials, the
accurate control of composition and homogeneity of
the slurry, and the economical utilization of fuel
through the elimination of separated drying
operations. On the other hand the longer kilns,
essential in the wet process, cost more and are less
responsive to a variable clinker demand than the
short kilns which can be used in the dry process.
 Testing Cement
Physical Test

1. Fineness Test- The degree of fineness of cement is the

measure of the mean size of the grains in it.

> Condition Affecting Fineness: Fineness is also influenced by

the time of grinding and the character of the pulverizing
machinery. It has been found that cement becomes finer with
age provided it does not absorb too much moisture. This is
probably due to the descrepitation of the coarser grains
resulting from the hydration of the embedded lime particles.
2. Sieve Method

3. Air Permeability Method - measured by

Lea and Nurse apparatus or by wagner

turbidimeter.. The Lea and Nurse apparatus

shown in Fig. 5.8 essentially consists of

a permeability test cell—where cement is

placed and air pressure is applied,

flowmeter—to determine the quantity of air

passing per second through its capillary

tube per unit difference of pressure, and

manometer—to measure the air pressure.

4. Wagner Turbidimeter Method - Wagner

developed a turbidimeter to estimate the
surface area of one gram of cement.
Consistency Test - This is a test
to estimate the quantity of mixing
water to form a paste of normal
consistency defined as that
percentage water requirement of the
cement paste, the viscosity of
which will be such that the Vicat’s
plunger penetrates up to a point 5
to 7 mm from the bottom of the
Vicat’s mould.
Soundness Test - It is
essential that the cement
concrete does not undergo large
change in volume after setting.
This is ensured by limiting the
quantities of free lime and
magnesia which slake slowly
causing change in volume of
cement (known as unsound).
Soundness of cement may be
tested by LeChatelier method or
by autoclave method.
Autoclave Test - The 25 × 25 × 250 mm specimen is made
with neat cement paste. After 24 hours the moulded
specimen is removed from the moist atmosphere, measured
for length, and so placed in an autoclave at room
temperature that the four tides of each specimen are at
least exposed to saturated steam’.
 Determination of Strength
 Cement hydrates when water is added to it and cohesion

and solidity is exhibited. It binds together the

aggregates by adhesion. The strength of mortar and
concrete depends upon the type and nature of cement.
So, it should develop a minimum specified strength if
it is to be used in structures. Cement is tested for
compressive and tensile strengths
Condition Affecting Strength - Gypsum and Plaster of
Paris in small percentages also tend to increase the
strength slightly, but when present in quantities larger
then 3 per cent, these substances provide variable
effects. In addition to the effect of composition, the
strength of cement is greatly influenced by the degree of
burning, the fineness of grinding, and the aeration it
receives subsequent to final grinding. An underburnt
cement is likely to be deficient in strength.
Compressive Strength - Compressive
strength is the basic data required
for mix design. By this test, the
quality and the quantity of concrete
can be controlled and the degree of
adulteration can be checked.

Tensile Strength - The tensile

strength may be determined by
Briquette test method or by split
tensile strength test.
Heat of Hydration - Heat is
evolved during hydration of cement,
the amount being dependent on the
relative quantities of the clinker
compounds.

The apparatus used to

determine the heat of hydration
of cement is known as calorimeter
and is shown in Fig. 5.12.
 Specific Gravity Test - The specific gravity

of hydraulic cement is obtained using Le-

Chatelier flask shown in Fig. 5.13.

 Conditions Affecting Specific Gravity -

Long seasonig is the chief cause of a low

specific gravity in unadulterated cement. This

is because the freshly ground cement when

exposed to air rapidly absorbs moisture and

carbon dioxide. Cements with high contents of

iron oxide have a higher specific gravity. The

effect of fineness of grinding upon specific

gravity is slight. Very finely ground cements

are likely to have lower specific gravities

Chemical Test
1. Loss on ignition
2. Silica
3. Combined Ferric Oxide and Alimunina
4. Ferric Oxide
5. Alumina
6. Calcium Oxide
7. Magnesia
8. Sulphuric Anhydride
9. Insoluble Residue
 Types of Cement
Rapid Hardening Portland Cement - has high lime
content and can be obtained by increasing the C3S content
but is normally obtained from OPC clinker by finer
grinding (450 m2/kg).

High Alumina Cement - The alumina content should not

be less than 32%. The resultant product is ground finely.
The main cement ingredient is monocalcium aluminate CA
which interacts with water and forms dicalcium octahydrate
hydroaluminate and aluminium oxide hydrate.
Supersulphated Portland Cement - is manufactured by intergrinding
or intimately blending a mixture of granulated blast furnace slag not
less than 70 per cent, calcium sulphate and small quantity of 33 grade
Portland cement.

Suplhate Resisting Portland Cement - In this cement the amount of

tricalcium aluminate is restricted to on acceptably low value(< 5). It
should not be mistaken for supersulphated cement. It is manufactured by
grinding and intimately mixing together calcareous and argillaceous and/
or other silica, alumina and iron oxide bearing materials. The Materials
are burnt to clinkering temperature. The resultant clinker is ground to
produce the cement. No material is added after burning except gypsum and
not more than one per cent of air-entraining agents are added.
Portland Sag Cement - intimate and uniform blending of
Portland cement and finely ground granulated slag. Slag is a non-
metallic product consisting essentially of glass containing
silicates and alumino silicates of lime and other bases, as in
the case of blast-furnace slag, which is developed simultaneously
with iron in blast furnace or electric pig iron furnace.

Low Heat Portland Cement - To limit the heat of hydration of

low heat Portland cement (LHC), the tricalcium aluminate
component in cement is minimised and a high percentage of
dicalcium silicate and tetracalcium alumino ferrite is added
Portland Puzzolana Cement - intimately and uniformly
blending Portland cement and fine puzzolana. Puzzolana (burnt
clay, shale, or fly ash) has no cementing value itself but has
the property of combining with lime to produce a stable lime-
puzzolana compound which has definite cementitious properties

Quick Setting Portland Cement - The quantity of gypsum is

reduced and small percentage of aluminium sulphate is added. It
is ground much finer than ordinary Portland cement. It is used
when concrete is to be laid under water or in running water.
Masonry Cement - The Portland cement clinker is ground and
mixed intimately with pozzolanic material (flyash or calcined
clay), or non-pozzolanic (inert) materials (limestone,
conglomrates, dolomite, granulated slag) and waste materials
(carbonated sludge, mine tailings) and gypsum and air entraining
plasticizer in suitable proportions.

White and Coloured Portland Cement - It is manufactured

from pure white chalk and clay free from iron oxide. These
cements are used for making terrazzo flooring, face plaster of
walls (stucco), ornamental works, and casting stones.
Air Entraining Cement - Vinsol resin or vegetable fats and
oils and fatty acids are ground with ordinary cement. These
materials have the property to entrain air in the form of fine
tiny air bubbles in concrete. Air entraining cements are used
for the same purposes as that of OPC.

Calcium Chloride Cement - It is also known as extra rapid

hardening cement and is made by adding 2 per cent of calcium
chloride. Since it is deliquescent, it is stored under dry
conditions and should be consumed within a month of its dispatch
from the factory. It is very suitable for cold weathers.
Water Repellant Cement - It is also called
hydrophobic cement.

Water Proof Cement - It is manufactured by adding

strearates of Ca and Al and gypsum treated with tannic
acid, etc. at the time of grinding. It is resistant to
penetration of water. Water retaining structures like
tanks, reservoirs, retaining walls, swimming pools,
bridge piers, etc.
 Storage Cement
 Portland cement is kept in sacks of 0.035 m3 (50 kg)

capacity for local use. These are stored for short

period of time in air tight room avoiding moisture and
dampness, at some distance from walls and at some
height from floors. The stack should be covered with
suitable coverings to avoid circulation of air through
the stack and not more than ten bags should be stacked
one over another.