LGIC

Logic and critical thinking

PROPOSITION
The sensible expression of a judgment.
A statement in which something is affirmed or denied.
It is what we call in English grammar a declarative
sentence.
For ancient thinkers, proposition is the enunciation of
truth or falsity.
TYPES OF PROPOSITIONS
Categorical: A categorical proposition unites
or separates two concepts by means of the
linking verb “to be.”
Example: Mr. Liday is a Filipino.
TYPES OF PROPOSITIONS
Hypothetical: A hypothetical proposition
unites or separates, not two concepts, but
two enunciations by means of a non-verb
copula.
Example: If Mr. Liday is a Filipino, then he is
a native of the Philippines.
PROPERTIES OF
PROPOSITIONS
Every proposition has quality and quantity.
 
Quality: the quality of a proposition maybe
affirmative or negative.
A proposition that has “no” or “not” is negative. This
is oftentimes determined by the copula.
PROPERTIES OF
PROPOSITIONS
Quantity: the quantity of a proposition is either
universal or particular.
The proposition is universal when what is being
affirmed or denied of the subject term is its
whole extension, and particular when what is
being affirmed or denied is just part of its
extension.
THE FOUR
CATEGORICALS
THE FOUR CATEGORICALS
A – stands for affirmative and universal
propositions (All S are P)
Examples
All bachelors are unmarried men.
Every butterfly is an insect.
THE FOUR CATEGORICALS
E – stands for negative and universal propositions (NO
S is P or All S are not P)
Examples
No congressman in the Philippines is a foreigner.
No bird has four legs.
Cagayan is not a Visayan province.
THE FOUR CATEGORICALS
I – stands for affirmative and particular
propositions (Some S are P)
Examples
Some students are scholars.
Some SMU students are naughty.
THE FOUR CATEGORICALS
O – stands for negative and particular
propositions (Some S are not P or Not all S is P)
Examples
Some senators are not lawyers.
Not every journalist gives accurate and well-
founded report.
QUANTITY OR
EXTENSION OF
THE PREDICATE
QUANTITY OR EXTENSION
OF THE PREDICATE
Rule 1
The predicate of an affirmative proposition is
generally particular.
Exceptions are predicates that are: 1) singulars,
2) essential definitions, and 3) essential
properties. These are universal or full extension.
QUANTITY OR EXTENSION
OF THE PREDICATE
Rule 2
The predicate of a negative
proposition is always universal
or in full extension.
IMMEDIATE
INFERENCE
An immediate inference is a process of reasoning
which consists in passing directly from one
proposition, without the aid of a second proposition
or a third term, called medium, to a new proposition
but not to a new truth.
Two main types
Logical Opposition and Eduction
LOGICAL
OPPOSITION
It is a repugnance or relation existing
between a pair of proposition which have
the same subject and predicate but they
differ in quality, quantity, or both in
quantity and quality.
EDUCTION
Eduction is the formulation of a new proposition,
either by interchanging the subject and predicate
and/or by the use or omission of negatives.
It is also known as equivalence or equipollence. It is
the method of rephrasing the truth or falsity
expressed in a given proposition.
LOGICAL OPPOSITION OF
CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS
A CONTRARIES E
CO
ES

SUBALTERNS

SUBALTERNS
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DI ICT
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I SUBCONTRARIES O
RULES OF LOGICAL
OPPOSITION
Rules of Contraries
If one is true, the other is false.
If one is false, the other is doubtful.
RULES OF LOGICAL
OPPOSITION
Rules of Subcontraries
If one is false, the other is true.
If one is true, the other is doubtful.
RULES OF LOGICAL
OPPOSITION
Rules for Subalterns
If the universal is true, the particular is true.
If the universal is false, the particular is doubtful.
If the particular is true, the universal is doubtful.
If the particular is false, the universal is false.
TYPES OF
EDUCTION
CONVERSION
It is done by interchanging the S and P of a
given proposition without changing its
quality.
original proposition = “convertend”
new proposition = “converse
CONVERSION
Rules
1. The convertend or original form must be in its logical
form.
2. Retain the quality of the proposition.
3. Do not over-extend the term.
Note: Proposition O has no converse.
CONVERSION
Examples
Some Marians are prayerful.  Some prayerful
(people) are Marians.
No atheist is a believer of God  No believer of God
is an atheist.
All beautiful girls are attractive  Some attractive
(people) are beautiful girls.
OBVERSION
It is done by changing the quality of the
copula.
original proposition = “obvertend”
new proposition = “obverse”
OBVERSION
Rules/Procedure
1. Change the quality of the copula.
2. Change the quality of the predicate
term.
3. Retain the quantity.
OBVERSION
Examples
All men are rational.  No man is non-rational (irrational).
No villain is moral.  All villains are non-moral (immoral).
Some politicians are responsible  Some politicians are not
non-responsible (irresponsible).
Some lawmakers are not ethical  Some lawmakers are non-
ethical (unethical).
CONTRAPOSITION
It is done by combining the processes of
obversion and conversion (partial or
full/complete).
PARTIAL
CONTRAPOSITION
This is applicable to A, E, and O
propositions.
Rules
1. Obvert the contraponend.
2. Convert the obverse.
PARTIAL
CONTRAPOSITION
Examples
All Christians are believers of Christ  No non-believer of Christ is a
Christian.
Step 1No Christian is a non-believer of Christ.
Step 2No non-believer of Christ is a Christian.
No ABM student is stupid  Some non-stupid people are ABM
students.
Some laws are not beneficial to citizens  Some (things) non-
beneficial to citizens are laws.
FULL/COMPLETE
CONTRAPOSITION
This is applicable to A, E, and O
propositions.
Rules/Procedure
1. Obvert.
2. Convert the obverse.
3. Obvert the converse.
FULL/COMPLETE
CONTRAPOSITION
Examples
All squares are equal in sides  All non-equal in sides are non-squares.
Step 1 Obvert – No square in non-equal in sides.
Step 2 Convert – No non-equal in sides is a square.
Step 3 Obvert – All non-equal in sides are non-squares.
No cow is a goat  Some non-goats are not non-cows.
Some lawyers are not honest.  Some non-honest (people) are not non-lawyers.
INVERSION
It consists in helping us to be alert to the
quantity and quality of the subject and to
the quality of the copula (simple or
full/complete).
SIMPLE INVERSION (A
and E)
Rules
1. Change the subject of the invertend to its
contradiction. e.g.: honest  non-honest
2. Change the quantity of the invertend.
3. Change the quality of the copula.
4. Retain the original predicate.
SIMPLE INVERSION (A
and E)
Examples
All communists are revolutionary.  Some non-
communists are not revolutionary.
No criminal is law-abiding.  Some non-
criminals are law-abiding.
FULL/COMPLETE INVERSION
Rules
1. Change the subject to its contradiction.
2. Change the quantity.
3. Retain the quality.
4. Change the predicate to its contradiction.
FULL/COMPLETE INVERSION
Examples
All communists are revolutionary.  Some non-
communists are non-revolutionary.
No criminal is law-abiding.  Some non-criminals are
not non-abiding of the law.
No cheater is honest.  Some non-cheaters are not
non-honest (dishonest).
ARGUMENTS
ARGUMENTS
It is a group of propositions in which one
proposition is asserted to be true on the basis of
the other proposition.
It is not categorized as true or false but as
either logical or illogical, valid or invalid, sound
or unsound.
ARGUMENTS
The proposition which is claimed to be true is called
the “conclusion” while the proposition which serves
as support of the conclusion is called “premise.”
Premise indicators: some, because, for, given that, as
indicated by, if.
Conclusion indicators: thus, hence, so, accordingly,
consequently, ergo.
PROPERTIES OF
ARGUMENT
TRUTH – refers to the conformity of proposition
to reality
LOGIC – refers to the connection between the
premises and the conclusion.
SOUNDNESS – property of argument as a whole
PROPERTIES OF
ARGUMENT
An argument may be logical while one or more
of its premises are false.
Example
All Filipinos are Asians.
But Barrack Obama is a Filipino.
Therefore, Barrack Obama is Asian.
PROPERTIES OF
ARGUMENT
There are arguments whose premises are true
but are not logical.
Example:
Cows have horns.
Pigs are not cows.
Therefore, pigs have no horns.
SYLLOGISMS
SYLLOGISMS
It refers to the verbal expression of a
deductive reasoning or inference.
It is an oral discourse showing the agreement
or disagreement between two terms on the
basis of their respective relation to a common
third term.
SYLLOGISMS
Minor Term (S) - subject of the conclusion and found
in the minor premise.
Major Term (P) - predicate of the conclusion and
found in the major premise.
Middle Term (M) - term that appears in both premises
but not in the conclusion.
VALID SYLLOGISMS
All heroes are freedom loving.
Antonio Luna is a hero.
Therefore, Antonio Luna is freedom loving.
 
All humans are rational.
The fish is not rational.
Therefore, the fish is not human.
INVALID
SYLLOGISMS
Every mother is pregnant.
But Teresa is a mother.
Therefore, Teresa is pregnant.
 
All Catholics are Christians.
But, Protestants are not Catholics.
Therefore, Protestants are not Christians.
THE EIGHT SYLLOGISTIC
RULES
1. There must be three and only three terms.
2. No term must have a greater extension in the
conclusion than it has in the premises.
3. The Middle Term must not appear in the
conclusion.
4. The Middle Term must be universal at least once.
THE EIGHT SYLLOGISTIC
RULES
5. Two affirmative premises yield an affirmative conclusion.
6. Two negative premises yield no conclusion.
7. When one premise is negative, conclusion must be
negative; when one premise is particular, conclusion must be
particular.
8. When both premises are particular, there is no conclusion.
MOODS AND
FIGURES
These refer to the arrangement of the
propositions relative to the position of the
Middle Term.
VALID MOODS AND
FIGURES
First Figure (sub-pre)
Second Figure (pre-pre)
Third Figure (sub-sub)
Fourth Figure (pre-sub
VALID MOODS AND
FIGURES
First – BARBARA, CELARENT, DARII, FERIO
Second – CESARE, CAMESTRES, FESTINO, BAROCO
Third – DARAPTI, DISAMIS, DATISI, FELAPTON,
BOCARDO, FERISON
Fourth – BRAMANTIP, CAMENES, DIMARIS, FESAPO,
PRESISON
ACTIVITY
INSTRUCTIONS
1. Identify the categorical of the given (original)
proposition.
2. Perform the type of eduction.
3. Identify the categorical of the new proposition.
4. Write your output on ½ crosswise to be submitted
by the end of the period.
Perform the processes of
eduction.
1. CONVERSION: All candidates to priesthood are prayerful.
2. OBVERSION: Some teachers are males.
3. PARTIAL/SIMPLE CONTRAPOSITION: Some girls are not beautiful.
4. FULL/COMPLETE CONTRAPOSITION: Some girls are not serious
5. PARTIAL/SIMPLE INVERSION: All Catholics are Christians.
6. FULL/COMPLETE INVERSION: All Marians are intelligent.