Data Communication

and Networking
A Top Down Approach
Ghana Telecom University College

Introduction 1-1
Credit: Jim Kurose, Keith Ross & Addison-Wesley
GOAL:
 The main goal of the course is to study data

communication and network characteristics that

affects transmission. The INTERNET will be in focus,
considering the top – down approach.

 It therefore implies that focus will also be given to

the five-layer Internet architecture rather than the

seven-layer OSI architecture

Introduction 1-2
 Chapter 1: Introduction
Overview:
 Recap of Data Communication and the Internet
 what’s a protocol?
 network edge; hosts, access net, physical media
 network core: packet/circuit switching, Internet
structure
 performance: loss, delay, throughput
 security
 protocol layers, service models
 history

Introduction 1-3
Data Networks: recap
 Description
 Formulate

 Components:
 Info/Message, transmitter, receiver, protocol & channel

 Discuss types and topologies

access PC cellular
points handheld
router wired wireless
links laptop server

Introduction 1-4
Internet: Terminologies
 World wide computer network made up of
millions of connected computing devices.

 End devices on the internet are termed as node

or hosts or end systems which run network
applications.
 Protocols - End systems run protocols that
control the sending and receiving of information
within the Internet.
 E.g. TCP/IP- main protocol of the Internet.
 HTTP, FTP, SMTP, Ethernet, etc

Introduction 1-5
Internet: Terminologies
 Protocols govern all communication activities in
Internet. Protocols define format, order of
messages sent and received among network
entities, and actions taken on the transmission
and/or receipt of a message
 Communication links - End systems are connected
together by fiber, copper, radio, satellite, etc
 transmission rate = bandwidth
 Routers - Switching devices through which end
systems are indirectly connected to each other.
Introduction 1-6
 Interconnection & Routes visualization
Views of the Internet
Mobile network
Global ISP

Home network
Regional ISP

Institutional network

Simple interconnection of network devices Visualization from the Opte Project of the
various routes through a portion of the
Internet (Source-Wikipedia.org)
Introduction 1-7
Internet
 Internet (Structure): “network of networks”
 loosely hierarchical
 public Internet versus private intranet

 Internetstandards
 RFC: Request for comments
 IETF: Internet Engineering Task Force

Introduction 1-8
Internet: a service view
 Distributed applications -A distributed
application runs on end systems and exchanges
data via the Data Network. E.g. Web, VoIP,
email, games, e-commerce, file sharing.
Communication infrastructure of Internet
enables distributed applications.
 Communication services provided to applications:
 reliable data delivery from source to
destination (Connection – Oriented)
 “best effort” (unreliable) data delivery
(Connectionless)
 Timely delivery not guaranteed Introduction 1-9
A closer look at network structure:
 network edge:
applications and
hosts
 access networks,
physical media:
wired, wireless
communication links
 network core:
 interconnected
routers
 network of
networks
Introduction 1-10
 The network edge:
 end systems (hosts):
 run application programs
 e.g. Web, email
 at “edge of network” peer-peer
 client/server model
 client host requests, receives
service from always-on server
 e.g. Web browser/server; client/server
email client/server
 peer-peer model:
 minimal (or no) use of
dedicated servers
 e.g. Skype, BitTorrent

Introduction 1-11
Access networks and physical media
Q: How to connect end
systems to edge router?
 residential access nets
 institutional access
networks (school,
company)
 mobile access networks

Keep in mind:
 bandwidth (bits per
second) of access
network?
 shared or dedicated?
Introduction 1-12
Residential access: point to point access

 Dialup via modem

 up to 56Kbps direct access to
router (often less)
 Can’t surf and phone at same
time: can’t be “always on”
 DSL: digital subscriber line
 deployment: telephone company (typically)
 up to 1 Mbps upstream (today typically < 256 kbps)
 up to 8 Mbps downstream (today typically < 1 Mbps)
 dedicated physical line to telephone central office

Introduction 1-13
Company access: local area networks
 company/univ local area
network (LAN) connects
end system to edge router
 Ethernet:
 10 Mbs, 100Mbps,
1Gbps, 10Gbps Ethernet
 modern configuration:
end systems connect
into Ethernet switch

Introduction 1-14
Wireless access networks
 shared wireless access
network connects end system
to router router
 via base station aka “access
point”
base
 wireless LANs:
station
 802.11b/g (WiFi): 11 or 54 Mbps

 wider-area wireless access

 provided by telco operator

mobile
hosts

Introduction 1-15
Home networks
Typical home network components:
 DSL or cable modem
 router/firewall/NAT
 Ethernet
 wireless access
point
wireless
to/from laptops
cable router/
cable
modem firewall
headend
wireless
access
Ethernet point

Introduction 1-16
Physical Media
Twisted Pair (TP)
 Bit: propagates between  two insulated copper
transmitter/rcvr pairs wires
 physical link: what lies  Category 3: traditional
between transmitter & phone wires, 10 Mbps
receiver Ethernet
 guided media:
 Category 5:
100Mbps Ethernet
 signals propagate in solid
media: copper, fiber, coax
 unguided media:
 signals propagate freely,
e.g., radio

Introduction 1-17
Physical Media: coax, fiber
Coaxial cable: Fiber optic cable:
 two concentric copper  glass fiber carrying light
conductors pulses, each pulse a bit
 bidirectional  high-speed operation:
 baseband:  high-speed point-to-point
 single channel on cable transmission (e.g., 10’s-
 legacy Ethernet 100’s Gps)
 broadband:  low error rate: repeaters
 multiple channels on spaced far apart ; immune
cable to electromagnetic noise
 HFC

Introduction 1-18
Physical media: radio
 signal carried in Radio link types:
electromagnetic  terrestrial microwave
spectrum  e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels

 no physical “wire”  LAN (e.g., Wifi)

 bidirectional  11Mbps, 54 Mbps
 propagation  wide-area (e.g., cellular)
 3G cellular: ~ 1 Mbps
environment effects:
 reflection  satellite
 obstruction by objects  Kbps to 45Mbps channel (or
 interference multiple smaller channels)
 270 msec end-end delay
 geosynchronous versus low
altitude

Introduction 1-19
The Network Core
 mesh of interconnected
routers
 the fundamental
question: how is data
transferred through net?
 circuit switching:
dedicated circuit per
call: telephone net
 packet-switching: data
sent thru net in
discrete “chunks”

Introduction 1-20
Network Core: Circuit Switching

End-end resources reserved for “call”

 link bandwidth, switch capacity
 dedicated resources: no sharing
 circuit-like (guaranteed) performance
 call setup required

Introduction 1-21
Network Core: Circuit Switching
network resources  dividing link bandwidth
(e.g., bandwidth) into “pieces”
divided into “pieces”  frequency division
 pieces allocated to calls  time division
 resource pieceidle if
not used by owning call
(no sharing)

Introduction 1-22
Circuit Switching: FDM and TDM
Example:
FDM
4 users

frequency

time
TDM

frequency

time
Introduction 1-23
Network Core: Packet Switching
each end-end data stream resource contention:
divided into packets  aggregate resource
 user A, B packets share demand can exceed
network resources amount available
 each packet uses full link  congestion: packets
bandwidth queue, wait for link use
 resources used as needed  store and forward:
packets move one hop
at a time
Bandwidth division into “pieces”  Node receives complete
Dedicated allocation packet before forwarding
Resource reservation

Introduction 1-24
 Packet Switching: Statistical Multiplexing
100 Mb/s
A Ethernet statistical multiplexing C

1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets
waiting for output
link

D E

Sequence of A & B packets does not have fixed pattern,

bandwidth shared on demand  statistical multiplexing.
TDM: each host gets same slot in revolving TDM frame.
Introduction 1-25
Packet-switching: store-and-forward
L
R R R

 takes L/R seconds to Example:

transmit (push out)  L = 7.5 Mbits
packet of L bits on to  R = 1.5 Mbps
link at R bps
 transmission delay = 15
 store and forward:
sec
entire packet must
arrive at router before
it can be transmitted
on next link
 delay = 3L/R (assuming
more on delay shortly …
zero propagation delay)
Introduction 1-26
 Packet switching versus circuit switching
Packet switching allows more users to use network!
 1 Mb/s link
 each user:
 100 kb/s when “active”
 active 10% of time

N users
 circuit-switching: 1 Mbps link
 10 users
 packet switching:
 with 35 users, Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
probability > 10 active
at same time is less
than .0004
Introduction 1-27
Performance
How do loss and delay occur?
packets queue in router buffers
 packet arrival rate to link exceeds output link
capacity
 packets queue, wait for turn

packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
Introduction 1-28
Four sources of packet delay
 1. nodal processing:  2. queueing
 check bit errors  time waiting at output
 determine output link link for transmission
 depends on congestion
level of router

transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

Introduction 1-29
Delay in packet-switched networks
3. Transmission delay: 4. Propagation delay:
 R=link bandwidth (bps)  d = length of physical link
 L=packet length (bits)  s = propagation speed in
 time to send bits into medium (~2x108 m/sec)
link = L/R  propagation delay = d/s

Note: s and R are very

different quantities!
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing
Introduction 1-30
 Nodal delay
d nodal  d proc  d queue  d trans  d prop

 dproc = processing delay

 typically a few microsecs or less
 dqueue = queuing delay
 depends on congestion
 dtrans = transmission delay
 = L/R, significant for low-speed links
 dprop = propagation delay
 a few microsecs to hundreds of msecs
Nodal delay discussed: http://www.d.umn.edu/~gshute/net/delays-losses.html
Introduction 1-31
“Real” Internet delays and routes
traceroute: gaia.cs.umass.edu to www.eurecom.fr
Three delay measurements from
gaia.cs.umass.edu to cs-gw.cs.umass.edu
1 cs-gw (128.119.240.254) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
2 border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.145) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 cht-vbns.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.130) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms
4 jn1-at1-0-0-19.wor.vbns.net (204.147.132.129) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 jn1-so7-0-0-0.wae.vbns.net (204.147.136.136) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 abilene-vbns.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.11.9) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 nycm-wash.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.8.46) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic
8 62.40.103.253 (62.40.103.253) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
9 de2-1.de1.de.geant.net (62.40.96.129) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms link
10 de.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.96.50) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 renater-gw.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.103.54) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms
12 nio-n2.cssi.renater.fr (193.51.206.13) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms
13 nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.102) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 r3t2-nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.110) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 eurecom-valbonne.r3t2.ft.net (193.48.50.54) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 194.214.211.25 (194.214.211.25) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
18 * * * * means no response (probe lost, router not replying)
19 fantasia.eurecom.fr (193.55.113.142) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms

Introduction 1-32
 Packet loss
 queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has
finite capacity
 packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost)
 lost packet may be retransmitted by previous
node, by source end system, or not at all
buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A

B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost
Introduction 1-33
 Throughput
 throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which
bits transferred between sender/receiver
 instantaneous: rate at given point in time
 average: rate over longer period of time

server,
server sendswith link
bits pipe capacity
that can carry link that
pipe capacity
can carry
file of
(fluid) F bits
into pipe fluid at rate
Rs bits/sec Rfluid at rate
c bits/sec
to send to client Rs bits/sec) Rc bits/sec)

Introduction 1-34
 Throughput (more)
 Rs < Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

 Rs > Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

bottleneck link
link on end-end path that constrains end-end throughput
Introduction 1-35
Internet protocol stack
 application: supporting network
applications application
 FTP, SMTP, HTTP
 transport: process-process data transport
transfer
 TCP, UDP network
 network: routing of datagrams from
source to destination link
 IP, routing protocols
 link: data transfer between physical
neighboring network elements
 PPP, Ethernet
 physical: bits “on the wire”
Introduction 1-36
 message M
source
application
Encapsulation
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network
M application
Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical

Introduction 1-37
Network Security
 The field of network security is about:
 how bad guys can attack computer networks
 how we can defend networks against attacks
 how to design architectures that are immune to
attacks
 Internet not originally designed with
(much) security in mind
 original vision: “a group of mutually trusting
users attached to a transparent network”
 Internet protocol designers playing “catch-up”
 Security considerations in all layers!

Introduction 1-38
Hackers can put malware into hosts
via Internet
 Malware can get in host from a virus, worm, or
trojan horse.

 Spyware malware can record keystrokes, web

sites visited, upload info to collection site.

 Infected host can be enrolled in a botnet, used

for spam and DDoS attacks.

 Malware is often self-replicating: from an

infected host, seeks entry into other hosts

Introduction 1-39
Hackers can put malware into hosts
via Internet
 Trojan horse  Worm:
 Hidden part of some  infection by passively
otherwise useful receiving object that gets
software itself executed
 Today often on a Web  self- replicating: propagates
page (Active-X, plugin) to other hosts, users
 Virus Sapphire Worm: aggregate scans/sec
 infection by receiving in first 5 minutes of outbreak (CAIDA, UWisc data)

object (e.g., e-mail

attachment), actively
executing
 self-replicating:
propagate itself to
other hosts, users
Introduction 1-40
 Hackers can attack servers and
network infrastructure
 Denial of service (DoS): attackers make resources
(server, bandwidth) unavailable to legitimate traffic
by overwhelming resource with bogus traffic
1. select target
2. break into hosts
around the network
(see botnet)
3. send packets toward
target from target
compromised hosts

Introduction 1-41
Hackers can sniff packets
Packet sniffing:
 broadcast media (shared Ethernet, wireless)
 promiscuous network interface reads/records all
packets (e.g., including passwords!) passing by

A C

src:B dest:A payload

B
 Wireshark software used for end-of-chapter
labs is a (free) packet-sniffer
Introduction 1-42
The bad guys can use false source
addresses
 IP spoofing: send packet with false source address
A C

src:B dest:A payload

Introduction 1-43
The bad guys can record and
playback
 record-and-playback: sniff sensitive info (e.g.,
password), and use later
 password holder is that user from system point of
view

C
A

src:B dest:A user: B; password: foo

Introduction 1-44
Internet History
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles
 1961: Kleinrock - queueing  1972:
theory shows  ARPAnet public demonstration
effectiveness of packet-  NCP (Network Control Protocol)
switching first host-host protocol
 1964: Baran - packet-  first e-mail program
switching in military nets  ARPAnet has 15 nodes
 1967: ARPAnet conceived
by Advanced Research
Projects Agency
 1969: first ARPAnet node
operational

Introduction 1-45
 Internet History
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets
 1970: ALOHAnet satellite Cerf and Kahn’s internetworking
network in Hawaii principles:
 1974: Cerf and Kahn -  minimalism, autonomy - no
architecture for internal changes required
interconnecting networks to interconnect networks
 best effort service model
 1976: Ethernet at Xerox
PARC  stateless routers
 decentralized control
 ate70’s: proprietary
architectures: DECnet, SNA, define today’s Internet
XNA architecture
 late 70’s: switching fixed
length packets (ATM
precursor)
 1979: ARPAnet has 200 nodes

Introduction 1-46
Internet History
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks

 1983: deployment of  new national networks:

TCP/IP Csnet, BITnet,
 1982: smtp e-mail NSFnet, Minitel
protocol defined  100,000 hosts
 1983: DNS defined connected to
for name-to-IP- confederation of
address translation networks
 1985: ftp protocol
defined
 1988: TCP congestion
control
Introduction 1-47
Internet History
1990, 2000’s: commercialization, the Web, new apps
 Early 1990’s: ARPAnet Late 1990’s – 2000’s:
decommissioned  more killer apps: instant
 1991: NSF lifts restrictions on messaging, P2P file sharing
commercial use of NSFnet  network security to
(decommissioned, 1995) forefront
 early 1990s: Web
 est. 50 million host, 100
 hypertext [Bush 1945,
million+ users
Nelson 1960’s]  backbone links running at
 HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee
Gbps
 1994: Mosaic, later Netscape
 late 1990’s:
commercialization of the Web

Introduction 1-48
Internet History

2007:
 ~500 million hosts
 Voice, Video over IP
 P2P applications: BitTorrent
(file sharing) Skype (VoIP),
PPLive (video)
 more applications: YouTube,
gaming
 wireless, mobility

Introduction 1-49