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FUNDAMENTALS
OF
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I SURVEYING
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S Surveying, which has recently also been
U interchangeably called Geomatics, has
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traditionally been defined as the science,
E art, and technology of determining the
Y relative positions above, on, or beneath
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the Earth’s surface, or of establishing such
G points.
 The Early Days of Surveying…
 1400 BC
Herodotus recorded that Sesostris divided the land
S of Egypt. The Egyptians first used it to accurately divide
U land into plots for the use of taxation.
R  120 B.C.
V Greeks developed the science of geometry and were
E using it for precise land division. Greeks also developed the
Y first piece of surveying equipment (Diopter). They
I standardized procedures for conducting surveys
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 The Early Days of Surveying…
• 1800 A.D.
Beginning of the industrial revolution
S The importance of “exact boundaries” and the
U demand for public improvements (i.e. railroads, canals,
roads) brought surveying into a prominent position. More
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accurate instruments were developed.
V Science of Geodetic and Plane were developed.
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 What is the
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importance of
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E Surveying to Civil
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Engineers???
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 Surveying Today…

Today surveying affects most everything in our daily lives.

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A few of the areas where surveying is being used are:
R • To map the earth above and below the sea.
V • Prepare navigational maps (land, air, sea).
E • Establish boundaries of public and private lands.
Y • Develop data bases for natural resource management.
I • Development of engineering data for bridge
N construction, roads, buildings, land development, etc.
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 TWO MAIN DIVISIONS OF SURVEYING

S The approximate shape of the earth can best be

U defined as an oblate tri-axial ovaloid. But most of
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the civil engineering works, concern only with a
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small portion of the earth which seems to be a
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Y plane surface. Thus based upon the consideration
I of the shape of the earth, surveying is broadly
N divided into two types:
G Geodetic surveying
Plane surveying
 Plane Surveying
• All distances and directions
are horizontal;
S • The direction of the plumb
U line is the same at all points
R within the limits of the
V survey;
E • All angles (both horizontal
Y and vertical) are plane
I angles;
N • Elevations are with
G reference to a datum.
 Geodetic Surveying

In this branch of surveying, the true shape of the earth is taken

S into consideration. This type of surveying is being carried out for
U highly precise work and is adopted for surveying of large area.
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 CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYS
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U CADASTRAL SURVEYS
R CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS
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HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
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Y INDUSTRIAL SURVEYS
I MINE SURVEYS
N PHOTOGRAMMETRIC SURVEYS
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ROUTE SURVEYS
TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS
 CADASTRAL SURVEYS

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This type of surveys relates to laws of land ownership. It includes
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establishment or reestablishment of real property boundaries,
R corners, and areas in rural and urban places.
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 CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS

It is an essential part of
S construction that is
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performed to establish
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reference points and markers
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that will guide the
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construction. Often called
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“stake-out”, “lay-out” or
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“setting-out”.
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 HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
This type includes mapping of bodies of water such as
lakes, rivers, etc. it also includes measurement of features
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such as discharge.
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 INDUSTRIAL SURVEYS

A sub-discipline of surveying which requires high accuracy and

S precision. It includes alignment of machineries and optical
U tooling.
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S
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MINE SURVEYS
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The practice of measuring and mapping on-ground or
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underground points for the purpose of exploiting and utilizing
mineral deposits.
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PHOTOGRAMMETRIC SURVEYS
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Obtains reliable spatial information from photographic images
(may it be aerial or terrestrial).
 ROUTE SURVEYS
Provides the data needed to determine horizontal and vertical
S alignment, and even earthwork quantities, for the design of linear
U structures such as roads, railways, pipelines, etc.
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 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS
Survey method that are used to map natural and/or man-made
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features on the ground as well as obtain elevations.
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S
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Errors
in Measurement
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 Differrence between Error and Mistake???

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ERRORS MISTAKES
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R Difference between true value Due to carelessness, inattention,
and the observed value poor judgement, and improper
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E Often beyond control of the one execution
performing the operation Also caused by a
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I Inherent in all measurements misunderstanding, inexperience,
which cannot be avoided or indiference of the surveyor.
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G Maybe caused by the type of Example: transposition of
equipment, imperfections of numbers
senses
 Sources of errors in making observations:
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 Natural errors
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R  Instrumental errors
V  Personal errors
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 TYPES OF OBSERVATION

S SYSTEMATIC/CUMULATIVE ERRORS
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Errors resulting from the observer, the instrument, and the
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environment. The nature of this type of error is cumulative
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meaning it tends to increase in magnitude so long as the
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condition remains constant.
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I ACCIDENTAL/RANDOM ERRORS
N These are errors beyond the control of the surveyor. They are
G probabilistic in nature and often tends to cancel out. They
are still present even after systematic errors and mistakes
have been eliminated.
 PRECISION AND ACCURACY
PRECISION refers to the degree of consistency of a group of
S observations.
U ACCURACY refers to the closeness of a measurement to its true value.
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 Eliminating Mistakes and Systematic Errors
S  Compare several observations and identify mistakes (cast out
U or repeat).
R  Repetitive observations can minimize mistakes.
V  Systematic errors can be calculated and proper corrections
E applied to the observations.
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 MOST PROBABLE VALUE
As discussed, no observation is completely free from error hence,
the true of an observation ,must be represented by a value
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assumed to be close to it. This value is called the most probable
R value and is taken as,
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σ𝑥
Y 𝑚𝑝𝑣 =
𝑛
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N ෍ 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
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𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑑𝑒
 Residual/Deviation
The difference between an observation x and the most
probable value
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𝑣 = 𝑥 − 𝑚𝑝𝑣
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Residual and errors are theoretically identical. The only
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difference is that residuals can be calculated whereas errors
I cannot.
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 PROBABLE ERROR

Defines a quantity which when added to or subtracted from the most probable value defines
a range within there is a 50% chance that the true value of the measured quantity lies inside
S (or outside) the limit thus set.
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Above is the normal distribution curve. The total area under the curve is 1.0 or 100%. The area
R bounded is denser at the center getting less and less dense as it moves away.
V If we define a region symmetric about the center that has a total area of 0.50 or 50%, the
E region will be bounded by z = -0.6745 and z = +0.6745 which is the basis of the coefficient used
in calculating the probable error.
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 PROBABLE ERROR OF ANY SINGLE OBSERVATION

𝛴𝑣 2
S 𝑃𝐸𝑆 = ±0.6745
𝑛−1
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PROBABLE ERROR OF THE MEAN
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E 𝛴𝑣 2
𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±0.6745
Y 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
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N RELATIVE PRECISION
G The ratio of the magnitude of the error to the magnitude of the
measured value.
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑚𝑝𝑣
 INTERRELATIONSHIP OF ERRORS
The following shows the algorithm used when values with known errors are added or
multiplied

S 1. SUMMATION OF ERRORS
U When measurements of known probable errors are added, the probable error of the sum is
given by
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V 𝑃𝐸𝑆𝑢𝑚 = ± 𝑃𝐸12 + 𝑃𝐸22 + 𝑃𝐸32 + ⋯ 𝑃𝐸𝑛2

E 2. PRODUCT OF ERROR
Y When measurements of known probable errors are multiplied, the probable error of the
product is given by
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𝑃𝐸𝑆𝑢𝑚 = ± (𝑄1 × 𝑃𝐸2 )2 + (𝑄2 × 𝑃𝐸1 )2
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G WEIGHTED OBSERVATION
Many surveying measurements are made under different circumstances and conditions
and therefore have different degrees of reliability. The weight is directly proportional to
the number of observations or measurements.
 Example Problem
The following values were determined in a series of tape
measurements of a line: 1000.58, 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000.48,
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1000.40, and 1000.46 meters. Determine the ff.:
R a. Most probable value of the measured length
V b. Probable error of a single measurement and probable error of
E the mean
Y c. Final expression for the most probable length
I d. Relative precision of the measurement
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 Given the following data in measuring a distance of a certain line.
Distance No. of Measurements
S 47.23m 3
U 47.21 2
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47.19 4
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47.27 2
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Y 1. Determine the most probable value of the measurements.
I 2. Calculate the probable error of any single observation
N 3. Calculate the probable error of the mean
G 4. Determine the relative error or precision of the mean
 CONVERSION TABLE FOR SOME UNITS USED IN SURVEYING
1 acre 4047 m2
1 chain 100 links = 4 rods = 66 ft
1 cubit 18 inches
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1 furlong 40 rods
U 1 knot 6080 ft = 1 nautical mile
R 1 link 0.66 ft
V 1 mile (nautical mile) 6080 ft = 8 furlongs
E 1 mile (statute mile) 5280 ft
1 military pace 2.5 ft
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1 perch 1 pole = 1 rod = 25 links
I 1 pin 100 links = 1 tape length
N 1 section 640 acres
G 1 tally 10 pins
1 township 36 sections
1 vara 33 inches
1 yard 3 ft
 PACING
Pacing is one of the simpliest method of measuring distances.
S It is used in instances where approximate results can be
U enough for the data needed.
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