UNIT III

Structured Query Language

Database System Concepts, 7th Ed.

©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use
 Introduction to SQL
 SQL is a language that provides an interface to Relational database
systems.
 Developed by IBM in the 1970s for use in System R
 SQL is relatively easy to learn
 Nonprocedural language
 ANSI prescribes a standard SQL

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Introduction to SQL (continued)
 SQL functions fit into two broad categories:
 Data Definition Language
 includes commands to:
– Create database objects, such as tables, indexes, and
views
– Define access rights to those database objects
 Data Manipulation Language
 Includes commands to insert, update, delete, and retrieve data
within database tables

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Data Definition Language

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Domain Types in SQL
 char(n). Fixed length character string, with user-specified length n.
 varchar(n). Variable length character strings, with user-specified maximum
length n.
 int. Integer (a finite subset of the integers that is machine-dependent).
 smallint. Small integer
 numeric(p,d). Fixed point number, with user-specified precision of p digits,
with d digits to the right of decimal point. (ex., numeric(3,1), allows 44.5 to be
stores exactly, but not 444.5 or 0.32)
 float(n). Floating point number, with user-specified precision of at least n digits.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Create Table Construct
 An SQL relation is defined using the create table command:
create table r
(A1 D1, A2 D2, ..., An Dn,
(integrity-constraint1),
...,
(integrity-constraintk))
 r is the name of the relation
 each Ai is an attribute name in the schema of relation r
 Di is the data type of values in the domain of attribute Ai

 Example:
create table instructor (
ID char(5),
name varchar(20),
dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2));

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Integrity Constraints in Create Table

 Types of integrity constraints

 primary key (A1, ..., An )
 foreign key (Am, ..., An ) references r
 not null
 SQL prevents any update to the database that violates an integrity constraint.
 Example:
create table instructor (
ID char(5),
name varchar(20) not null,
dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2),
primary key (ID),
foreign key (dept_name) references department);
 Primary key attributes indicate both a NOT NULL and a UNIQUE specification

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 And a Few More Relation Definitions
 create table student (
ID varchar(5),
name varchar(20) not null,
dept_name varchar(20),
tot_cred numeric(3,0),
primary key (ID),
foreign key (dept_name) references department);

 create table takes (

ID varchar(5),
course_id varchar(8),
sec_id varchar(8),
semester varchar(6),
year numeric(4,0),
grade varchar(2),
primary key (ID, course_id, sec_id, semester, year) ,
foreign key (ID) references student,
foreign key (course_id, sec_id, semester, year) references section);

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 And more still
 create table course (
course_id varchar(8),
title varchar(50),
dept_name varchar(20),
credits numeric(2,0),
primary key (course_id),
foreign key (dept_name) references department);

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 ALTER Command
 All changes in table structure are made by using ALTER command
 Followed by keyword that produces specific change
 Following four options are available:
 ADD
 MODIFY
 RENAME
 DROP
 Use ALTER to add column
 Syntax:
alter table r add A D
 where A is the name of the attribute to be added to relation r
and D is the domain of A.
 All existing tuples in the relation are assigned null as the value
for the new attribute.
Example:
ALTER TABLE Student
ADD dateofbirth CHAR(20);
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 ALTER Command contd.

 ALTER can be used to change data type

 Some RDBMSs (such as Oracle) do not permit changes to data types
unless column to be changed is empty
ALTER TABLE Student
MODIFY dateofbirth VARCHAR(20);

 Use ALTER to drop column

 Some RDBMSs impose restrictions on the deletion of an attribute
 Syntax:
alter table r drop column A
 where A is the name of an attribute of relation r
 Dropping of attributes not supported by many databases.
ALTER TABLE Student
DROP COLUMN dateofbirth;

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Deleting a Table from the Database
 DROP
 Deletes table from database
 Syntax:
 DROP TABLE tablename;

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Modification of the Database

 Insertion of new tuples into a given relation

 Deletion of tuples from a given relation.
 Updating of values in some tuples in a given relation

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.14 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Adding Table Rows - Insertion
 INSERT
 Used to enter data into table
 Insert a row each time
 Use NULL for unknown values
 Syntax:
 INSERT INTO tablename
VALUES (value1, value2, … , valuen);

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Insertion (Cont.)
 Add a new tuple to course
insert into course
values (’CS-437’, ’Database Systems’, ’Comp. Sci.’, 4);

 or equivalently

insert into course (course_id, title, dept_name, credits)

values (’CS-437’, ’Database Systems’, ’Comp. Sci.’, 4);

 Add a new tuple to student with tot_creds set to null

insert into student
values (’3003’, ’Green’, ’Finance’, null);

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Inserting Table Rows with a
Select Subquery

 INSERT
 Inserts multiple rows from another table (source)
 Uses SELECT subquery
 Query that is embedded (or nested) inside another query
 Executed first
 Syntax:
 INSERT INTO tablename SELECT columnlist FROM
tablename;

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Inserting Table Rows with a
Select Subquery (Cont.)
Student(name, address, roll_num, total_credits)
Student1(addr, credits, rollno)

INSERT INTO Student1

SELECT address, total_credits, roll_num
FROM Student;

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Inserting Table Rows with a
Select Subquery (Cont.)
 INSERT INTO Student1
SELECT address, roll_num, total_credits
FROM Student;
(The order of attributes matter in the above)

 INSERT INTO Student1

SELECT * FROM Student;
(The number of attributes are not the same!)

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Updating Table Rows
 UPDATE
 Modify data in a table
 Syntax:
 UPDATE tablename
SET columnname = expression [, columnname = expression ]
[WHERE conditionlist];
 If more than one attribute is to be updated in row, separate corrections
with commas

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Updates (Cont.)

 Give a 5% salary raise to all instructors

update instructor
set salary = salary * 1.05
 Give a 5% salary raise to those instructors who Eran less than 70000
update instructor
set salary = salary * 1.05
where salary < 70000;
 Give a 5% salary raise to instructors whose salary is less than average
update instructor
set salary = salary * 1.05
where salary < (select avg (salary)
from instructor);

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Deleting Table Rows

 DELETE
 Deletes a table row
 Syntax:
 DELETE FROM tablename [WHERE conditionlist ];
 WHERE condition is optional
 If WHERE condition is not specified, all rows from specified table will be deleted

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Deletion (Cont.)

 Delete all instructors from the Finance department

delete from instructor
where dept_name= ’Finance’;

 Delete all instructors whose salary is less than the average salary of instructors
delete from instructor
where salary < (select avg (salary) from instructor);

 Delete all instructors

delete from instructor ;

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Restoring Table Contents

 ROLLBACK
 Used to restore database to its previous condition
 Only applicable if COMMIT command has not been
used to permanently store changes in database
 Syntax:
 ROLLBACK;
 COMMIT and ROLLBACK only work with data
manipulation commands that are used to add,
modify, or delete table rows

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Basic Structure of SQL Queries
 A typical SQL query has the form:

select A1, A2, ..., An

from r1, r2, ..., rm
where P
 Ai represents an attribute;
 Ri represents a relation
 P is a predicate.
 The result of an SQL query is a relation.
 The select clause is used to list the attributes desired in the result of a query
(corresponds to the projection operation of the relational algebra).
 The from clause is a list of the relations to be accessed in the evaluation of
the query (Corresponds to the Cartesian product operation of the relational
algebra).
 The where clause specifies conditions that the result must satisfy
(Corresponds to the selection predicate of the relational algebra).

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Queries on a single relation
 Example: find the names of all instructors:
select name
from instructor;
 An asterisk in the select clause denotes “all attributes”
select *
from instructor;
 NOTE: SQL names are case insensitive (i.e., you may use upper- or lower-
case letters.)
 E.g., Name ≡ NAME ≡ name

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Queries on a single relation (Cont.)
 SQL allows duplicates in relations as well as in query results.
 Example: Find the department names of all instructors
select dept_name
from instructor;
 To force the elimination of duplicates, insert the keyword distinct after select.
 Find the department names of all instructors, and remove duplicates
select distinct dept_name
from instructor;
 The keyword all specifies that duplicates should not be removed.

select all dept_name

from instructor;

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Queries on a single relation (Cont.)
 The select clause can contain arithmetic expressions involving the operation, +,
–, , and /, and operating on constants or attributes of tuples.
 The query:
select ID, name, salary/12
from instructor;
would return a relation that is the same as the instructor relation, except that
the value of the attribute salary is divided by 12.
 Can rename “salary/12” using the as clause:
select ID, name, salary/12 as monthly_salary from instructor;
 SQL includes a between comparison operator which is used to check whether
attribute value is within a range
 Example: Find the names of all instructors with salary between $90,000 and
$100,000 (that is,  $90,000 and  $100,000)
 select name
from instructor
where salary between 90000 and 100000;

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.28 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Queries on a single relation (Cont.)
 To find all instructors in Comp. Sci. dept
select name
from instructor
where dept_name = ‘Comp. Sci.‘;
 SQL allows the use of the logical connectives and, or, and not
 The operands of the logical connectives can be expressions involving the
comparison operators <, <=, >, >=, =, and <>.
 Comparisons can be applied to results of arithmetic expressions
 To find all instructors in Comp. Sci. dept with salary > 80000
select name
from instructor
where dept_name = ‘Comp. Sci.' and salary > 80000;

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.29 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Queries on a multiple relations
 Find the Cartesian product instructor X department
select 
from instructor, department;
 generates every possible instructor – department pair, with all attributes
from both relations.
 Cartesian product is not very useful directly, but useful combined with where-
clause condition (selection operation in relational algebra).

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.30 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Queries on a multiple relations (Contd.)
 Example: Retrieve the names of all instructors, along with their department
names and department building name
 Query:
select name, instructor.dept_name, building
from instructor, department
where instructor.dept_name= department.dept_name;

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.31 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Additional Basic Operations

String Operations:
 SQL includes a string-matching operator for comparisons on character strings.
The operator like uses patterns that are described using two special characters:
 percent ( % ). The % character matches any substring.
 underscore ( _ ). The _ character matches any character.
 Find the names of all instructors whose name includes the substring “sa”.
select name
from instructor
where name like '%sa%'

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.32 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 String Operations (Cont.)
 Patterns are case sensitive.
 Pattern matching examples:
 ‘Intro%’ matches any string beginning with “Intro”.
 ‘%Comp%’ matches any string containing “Comp” as a substring.
 ‘_ _ _’ matches any string of exactly three characters.
 ‘_ _ _ %’ matches any string of at least three characters.

 SQL supports a variety of string operations such as

 concatenation (using “||”)
 converting from upper to lower case (and vice versa)
 finding string length, extracting substrings, etc.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.33 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 String Operations (Cont.)

Examples:
 Find the names of all instructors whose name begins with
“K”.
 Find the names of all instructors whose name ends with
“n”.
 Find the names of all instructors whose second last letter is
“i”.
 Find the names of all instructors whose third letter from the
beginning is “i”

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.34 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 String Operations (Cont.)
 ASCII(): Used to find the ASCII value of a character.
 Select ascii(‘a’) from dual;
 Concatenation:
 select 'vasavi' ||'college' from dual;
Or
 select concat('vasavi','college') from dual;
 select name,length(name) from instructor;
 select upper(name) from instructor;
 select lower(name) from instructor;
 select lower('VASAVI') from dual;
 select upper('vasavi') from dual;
 select length('vasavi college of engineering') from dual;

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.35 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Ordering the Display of Tuples
 List in alphabetic order the names of all instructors
select name
from instructor
order by name
 We may specify desc for descending order or asc for ascending order, for each
attribute; ascending order is the default.
 Example: order by name desc
 Can sort on multiple attributes
 Example: order by dept_name, name

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.36 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Where Clause Predicates
 SQL includes a between comparison operator
 Example: Find the names of all instructors with salary between $90,000
and $100,000 (that is,  $90,000 and  $100,000)
 select name
from instructor
where salary between 90000 and 100000

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.37 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Set Operations
RELATIONAL SET OPERATORS
- UNION
- INTERSECT
- MINUS (Except)
 Each of the above operations automatically eliminates duplicates
 To retain all duplicates use the
 union all
 intersect all
 except all.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.38 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 The UNION Operation
 The UNION statement combines rows from two or more queries
without including duplicate rows.
 Column names and their data types must be compatible
 Syntax: query UNION query

SELECT column-list FROM table1

UNION
SELECT column-list FROM table2;

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.39 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 The UNION Operation (Contd.)
Consider two relations:
1. Student relation with three attributes- Rollno, Name, Deptname
2. Student1 relation with two attributes- Rollno, Name
Rollno and Name are common attributes. We can perform set operations
on these common attributes

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.40 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 The UNION Operation (Contd.)
SELECT rollno,name FROM student
UNION
SELECT rollno,name FROM student1;

Result

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.41 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 UNION ALL
 The UNION ALL query can be used to produce a relation that retains
the duplicate rows
 Column names and their data types must be compatible.
 Syntax: query UNION ALL query

SELECT column-list FROM table1

UNION ALL
SELECT column-list FROM table2;

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.42 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 UNION ALL (Contd.)
SELECT rollno,name FROM student
UNION ALL
SELECT rollno,name FROM student1;

Result

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.43 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 The INTERSECT Operation
 Find the rows that are in both tables

 Syntax: query INTERSECT query

SELECT column-list FROM table1

INTERSECT
SELECT column-list FROM table2;

 If we want to retain all duplicates, we must write intersect all in place of intersect.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.44 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 The INTERSECT Operation (Contd.)
SELECT rollno,name FROM student
INTERSECT
SELECT rollno,name FROM student1;

 Result:

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.45 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 The Except (Minus) Operation
 Combines rows from two queries and returns only those rows that appear in the
first table but not in the second
 Syntax: query except query

SELECT column-list FROM table1

EXCEPT
SELECT column-list FROM table2;

 If we want to retain duplicates, we must write except all in place of

except

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.46 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 The Except (Minus) Operation (Contd.)
SELECT rollno,name FROM student
MINUS
SELECT rollno,name FROM student1;

Result:

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.47 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Null Values
 It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by null, for some of their
attributes.
 null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not exist.
 The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is null
 Example: 5 + null returns null
 The predicate is null can be used to check for null values.
 Example: Find all instructors whose salary is null.
select name
from instructor
where salary is null;
 The predicate is not null succeeds if the value on which it is applied is not
null.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.48 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Null Values (Cont.)
 SQL treats as unknown the result of any comparison involving a null value
(other than predicates is null and is not null). This creates a third logical value
in addition to true and false.
 Example: 5 < null or null <> null or null = null
 The predicate in a where clause can involve Boolean operations (and, or, not);
thus the definitions of the Boolean operations need to be extended to deal with
the value unknown.
 and : (true and unknown) = unknown,
(false and unknown) = false,
(unknown and unknown) = unknown
 or: (unknown or true) = true,
(unknown or false) = unknown
(unknown or unknown) = unknown
 not: The result of not unknown is unknown.
 Result of where clause predicate is treated as false if it evaluates to unknown

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.49 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregate Functions
 Aggregate functions are functions that take a collection (a set or multiset) of values as
input and return a single value. SQL offers five built-in aggregate functions:

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.50 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregate Functions Examples
 Find the average salary of instructors in the Computer Science
department
 select avg (salary)
from instructor
where dept_name= ’Comp. Sci.’;
 we can give a meaningful name to the attribute by using the as
clause as follows
 select avg (salary) as avg_salary
from instructor
where dept_name= ’Comp. Sci.’;
 Find the number of tuples in the instructor relation
 select count (*)
from instructor;

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.51 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregate Functions Examples
 Finding maximum salary:
 select max (salary)
from instructor;
 we can give a meaningful name to the attribute by using the as
clause as follows
 select max (salary) as maximum_salary
from instructor;

 Finding minimum salary:

 select min (salary)
from instructor;
 we can give a meaningful name to the attribute by using the as
clause as follows
 select min (salary) as minimum_salary
from instructor;

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.52 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregate Functions Examples
 Finding sum of salaries of all the instructors:
 select sum (salary)
from instructor;
 we can give a meaningful name to the attribute by using the as
clause as follows
 select sum (salary) as total_salary
from instructor;

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.53 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Grouping Data
 The GROUP BY clause is generally used when you have attribute columns
combined with aggregate functions in the SELECT statement

 Syntax:
 SELECT columnlist
FROM tablelist
[ WHERE conditionlist ]
[ GROUP BY columnlist ];

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.54 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregate Functions – Group By
 Find the average salary of instructors in each department
 select dept_name, avg (salary) as avg_salary
from instructor
group by dept_name;

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.55 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregate Functions – Having Clause

 Find the names and average salaries of all departments whose

average salary is greater than 42000

select dept_name, avg (salary) as avg_salary

from instructor
group by dept_name
having avg (salary) > 42000;

Note: predicates in the having clause are applied after the formation
of groups whereas predicates in the where clause are applied before
forming groups.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.56 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Null Values and Aggregates
 Total all salaries
select sum (salary )
from instructor;
 Above statement ignores null amounts
 Result is null if there is no non-null amount
 All aggregate operations except count(*) ignore tuples with null values
on the aggregated attributes
 What if collection has only null values?
 count returns 0
 all other aggregates return null

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.57 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Nested Subqueries
 SQL provides a mechanism for the nesting of subqueries.
 A subquery is a query (select-from-where expression) inside a
query
 Normally expressed inside parenthesis
 The first query in the SQL statement is known as the outer query
 The query inside the SQL statement is known as the inner query
 The inner query is executed first.
 The output of an inner query is used as the input for the outer
query.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.58 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Nested Subqueries (Contd.)
 The nesting can be done in the following SQL query

select A1, A2, ..., An

from r1, r2, ..., rm
where P

as follows:
 From clause: ri can be replaced by any valid subquery
 Where clause: P can be replaced with an expression of the form:
B <operation> (subquery)
Where B is an attribute and <operation> to be defined later.
 Select clause:
Ai can be replaced be a subquery that generates a single value.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.59 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Subqueries in the Where cluase
 The most common type of subquery uses an inner SELECT subquery on the
right side of a WHERE comparison expression
 Select the names of instructors whose salary is less than average salary.
select name from instructor
where salary < (select avg (salary)
from instructor);
 select all tuples in the instructor relation for those instructors associated with
a department located in the Watson building.
select * from instructor
where dept_name in (select dept_name
from department
where building = ’Watson’);
 IN
 Used to check whether attribute value matches any value within a value
list

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.60 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Subqueries in the Where clause (Contd.)
 select all tuples in the instructor relation for those instructors not associated
with a department located in the Watson building.
select * from instructor
where dept_name not in (select dept_name
from department
where building = ’Watson’);

 Finding second highest salary of an instructor.

select max(salary) from instructor
where salary<(select max(salary) from instructor);

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.61 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Subqueries in the Where clause (Contd.)
 Update the name of an instructor who is having minimum salary.
update instructor set name='Ramu'
where salary=(select min(salary) from instructor);

 Delete instructors whose salary is less than the average salary.

delete from instructor
where salary<(select avg(salary) from instructor);

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.62 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Subqueries in the Where clause (Contd.)
 Multi row Subquery Operators: SOME and ALL
 SOME and ALL are logical operators in SQL.

Definition of “some” Clause

 SOME or ANY: The ANY operator returns TRUE if any of the
subquery values meet the condition.
0
(5 < some 5 ) = true
(read: 5 < some tuple in the relation)
6
0
(5 < some 5 ) = false

0
(5 = some 5 ) = true

0
(5  some 5 ) = true (since 0  5)
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.63 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Subqueries in the Where clause (Contd.)
Definition of “all” Clause
 ALL: The ALL operator returns TRUE if all of the subquery
values meet the condition.

0
(5 < all 5 ) = false
6
6
(5 < all 10 ) = true

4
(5 = all 5 ) = false

4
(5  all 6 ) = true (since 5  4 and 5  6)

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.64 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Subqueries in the Where clause (Contd.)
 Find the tuples of instructors with salary greater than that of some
(at least one) instructor in the Computer Science department.
select *
from instructor
where salary > some (select salary
from instructor
where dept_name = ’Comp. Sci.’);

 Find the tuples of all instructors whose salary is greater than the
salary of all instructors in the Computer Science department.
select *
from instructor
where salary > all (select salary
from instructor
where dept_name = ’Comp. Sci.’);

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.65 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Subqueries in the From Clause
 SQL allows a subquery expression to be used in the from clause
 Find the average instructors’ salaries of those departments where the
average salary is greater than $42,000.”
select dept_name, avg_salary
from ( select dept_name, avg (salary) as avg_salary
from instructor
group by dept_name)
where avg_salary > 42000;
 Find the maximum across all departments of the total salary at each
department.
select max(tot_salary)
from(select deptname, sum(salary) as tot_salary
from instructor group by deptname);

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.66 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Scalar Subquery
 Scalar subquery is one which is used where a single value is
expected
 List all departments along with the number of instructors in each
department
select dept_name,
( select count(*)
from instructor
where department.dept_name = instructor.dept_name)
as num_instructors
from department;
 Runtime error if subquery returns more than one result tuple

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.67 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Join Expressions
 Join operations take two relations and return as a result another
relation.
 A join operation is a Cartesian product which requires that tuples in the
two relations match (under some condition). It also specifies the
attributes that are present in the result of the join
 The join operations are typically used as subquery expressions in the
from clause

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.68 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 SQL Join Operators

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.69 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Join operations – Example
 Relation course

 Relation prereq

 Observe that
prereq information is missing for CS-315 and
course information is missing for CS-347
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.70 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Outer Join

 An extension of the join operation that avoids loss of information.

 Computes the join and then adds tuples form one relation that does not
match tuples in the other relation to the result of the join.
 Uses null values.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.71 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Left Outer Join

 course natural left outer join prereq

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.72 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Right Outer Join

 course natural right outer join prereq

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.73 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Joined Relations
 Join operations take two relations and return as a result another relation.
 These additional operations are typically used as subquery expressions in
the from clause
 Join condition – defines which tuples in the two relations match, and
what attributes are present in the result of the join.
 Join type – defines how tuples in each relation that do not match any
tuple in the other relation (based on the join condition) are treated.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.74 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Full Outer Join

 course natural full outer join prereq

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.75 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Joined Relations – Examples

 course inner join prereq on

course.course_id = prereq.course_id

 What is the difference between the above, and a natural join?

 course left outer join prereq on
course.course_id = prereq.course_id

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.76 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Joined Relations – Examples
 course natural right outer join prereq

 course full outer join prereq using (course_id)

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.77 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Views
 In some cases, it is not desirable for all users to see the entire logical
model (that is, all the actual relations stored in the database.)
 Consider a person who needs to know an instructors name and
department, but not the salary. This person should see a relation
described, in SQL, by

select ID, name, dept_name

from instructor

 A view provides a mechanism to hide certain data from the view of

certain users.
 Any relation that is not of the conceptual model but is made visible to a
user as a “virtual relation” is called a view.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.78 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Virtual Tables: Creating a View
 View is virtual table based on SELECT query

Can contain columns, computed columns, aliases, and aggregate
functions from one or more tables
 Base tables are tables on which view is based
 Create view by using CREATE VIEW command
 CREATE VIEW viewname AS SELECT query

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.79 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 View Definition
 A view is defined using the create view statement which has
the form
create view v as < query expression >

where <query expression> is any legal SQL expression. The

view name is represented by v.
 Once a view is defined, the view name can be used to refer to
the virtual relation that the view generates.
 View definition is not the same as creating a new relation by
evaluating the query expression
 Rather, a view definition causes the saving of an expression;
the expression is substituted into queries using the view.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.80 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Views
 A view of instructors without their salary
create view faculty as
select ID, name, dept_name
from instructor
 Find all instructors in the Biology department
select name
from faculty
where dept_name = ‘Biology’
 Create a view of department salary totals
create view departments_total_salary(dept_name, total_salary) as
select dept_name, sum (salary)
from instructor
group by dept_name;

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.81 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Views Defined Using Other Views
 One view may be used in the expression defining another view
 A view relation v1 is said to depend directly on a view relation
v2 if v2 is used in the expression defining v1
 A view relation v1 is said to depend on view relation v2 if either
v1 depends directly to v2 or there is a path of dependencies
from v1 to v2
 A view relation v is said to be recursive if it depends on itself.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.82 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 View Expansion
 A way to define the meaning of views defined in terms of other
views.
 Let view v1 be defined by an expression e1 that may itself
contain uses of view relations.
 View expansion of an expression repeats the following
replacement step:
repeat
Find any view relation vi in e1
Replace the view relation vi by the expression defining vi
until no more view relations are present in e1
 As long as the view definitions are not recursive, this loop will
terminate

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.83 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Update of a View
 Add a new tuple to faculty view which we defined earlier
insert into faculty values (’30765’, ’Green’, ’Music’);
This insertion must be represented by the insertion of the tuple
(’30765’, ’Green’, ’Music’, null)
into the instructor relation

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.84 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Some Updates cannot be Translated Uniquely
 create view instructor_info as
select ID, name, building
from instructor, department
where instructor.dept_name= department.dept_name;
 insert into instructor_info values (’69987’, ’White’, ’Taylor’);
 which department, if multiple departments in Taylor?
 what if no department is in Taylor?
 Most SQL implementations allow updates only on simple views
 The from clause has only one database relation.
 The select clause contains only attribute names of the
relation, and does not have any expressions, aggregates, or
distinct specification.
 Any attribute not listed in the select clause can be set to null
 The query does not have a group by or having clause.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.85 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 And Some Not at All
 create view history_instructors as
select *
from instructor
where dept_name= ’History’;
 What happens if we insert (’25566’, ’Brown’, ’Biology’, 100000)
into history_instructors?

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.86 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan