Lecture 1

Introduction to Computers
Components of a computer system
Chapter 6 Computing 3rd Edition – Geoffrey Knot & Nick Waites
 Functional Components
• Input
• Main Memory
• Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• Output
• Backing Storage
• Peripherals
Logical Structure of Computer System

Input

Output Memory CPU

Storage
 Input
• Obtain input from user
• Translate input into the binary format
which makes the data machine-sensible
• Data then transferred to main memory
• E.g. Keyboard, mouse and etc.
 Main Memory
• Known as Random Access Memory
(RAM)
• Has two functions:
– temporarily store programs
– temporarily store data
 CPU
• Handles instructions and data
• Has two elements:
– Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) which carries
out arithmetic operations
– Control Unit which governs the operations
of all hardware, including I/O devices and
the CPU
 Output
• Perform opposite function of input
devices
• Translates machine-sensible data into
human-readable form
• E.g. Printer, Computer Screen and etc
 Backing Storage
• Non-volatile
• Retrievable – a more permanent store
for programs and data
 Peripherals
• Hardware devices which are external to
the CPU and the main memory, namely
those devices used for input, output and
backing storage
 Lecture 2
Introduction to Computers

Hardware Classification
Chapter 3 Principles of Information Systems 6th Edition – Ralph M. Stair,
George W. Reynolds
 Hardware Components

• Central processing unit (CPU)

• Primary storage (main memory; memory)
• Secondary storage
• Input devices
• Output devices
 Hardware Components
Communication
Devices

Processing Device
Control Arithmetic
Input Unit Logic Unit
Output
Devices Register Storage Area Devices

Memory
(primary storage)

Secondary
Storage
 Hardware Components in Action

• Step 1: Fetch instruction

• Step 2: Decode instruction
• Step 3: Execute the instruction
• Step 4: Store results
Hardware Components in Action

Processing Device

Control Unit ALU

(2) Decode (3) Execute
I-time E-time

Registers
(1) Fetch (4) Store

Memory
Processing & Memory Devices
 Processing Characteristics and Functions

• Machine cycle time is measured in:

– Microseconds (1 millionth)
– Nanoseconds (1 billionth)
– Picoseconds (1 trillionth)
– MIPS (Millions of Instructions Processed
per Second)
Memory Characteristics and
Functions
 Storage Capacity

Name Abbreviation Number of Bytes

Byte B 1

Kilobyte KB 1024 Bytes

Megabyte MB 1024 Kilobytes

Gigabyte GB 1024 Megabytes

Terabyte TB 1024 Gigabyte

Petabyte PB 1024 Terabyte

 Types of Memory

Memory Types

Volatile Non-volatile

RAM ROM

Dynamic Static

PROM EPROM
SDRAM DRAM EDO Cache
 Types of RAM
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM) consumes less power
• Needs to be refreshed
• Cheaper but slower than Static RAM (SRAM)
• Types:
– EDO (Extended Data Out)
– DRAM (Dynamic RAM)
– SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM)
 Cache Memory
• SRAM
• Consumes high power – content
retained as long as the power
maintained
• Fast but expensive
• Located near to CPU
• CPU can access cache memory faster
than main memory
 Types of ROM

• ROM (read-only memory)

– Firmware (programs and data are hardwired)
• PROM (programmable read-only memory)
– Like CDs, purchased content-free an used to store
software (less common)
• EPROM (erasable programmable read-only
memory)
– Similar to PROM but erasable by using ultra-violet
light
 Lecture 3
Introduction to Computers

Data Storage Devices

I/O Devices
Chapter 3 Principles of Information Systems 6th Edition – Ralph M. Stair,
George W. Reynolds
Secondary Storage
 Secondary Storage
• Offers the advantages of non-volatility
• Greater capacity
• Greater economy
 Access Methods
• Sequential: records retrieved in order
• Direct: records retrieved in any order
 Devices

• Magnetic tapes
• Magnetic disks
• Optical disks
• Magneto-optical (MO) disks
• Digital versatile disks (DVDs)
 Magnetic Tapes
• A long strip of polyester film coated with a
magnetizable recording material
• Serial access
• Most widely utilized media for off-line data
storage and backup protection
 Magnetic Disks
• Coated with iron oxide
• Hard Disks – steel platters
• Floppy Disks – Mylar film
 Optical Disks
• Similar in concept to a ROM
• A rigid disk of plastic onto which data is
recorded by special lasers that
physically burn crevices in the disk
• CD-ROM (compact disk read-only
memory)
 Magneto-optical (MO) disks
• A hybrid between magnetic disks and
optical disks
• Uses laser beam to change the
molecular configuration of a magnetic
substrate on the disk
• The disk can be erased by
demagnetizing the substrate
• Removable
• Huge storage capacity
 Digital Versatile Disk
• DVDs look like CDs
• Have a much greater storage capacity
• Can transfer data at a much faster rate
 Additional Devices and Media

• Memory cards
• Flash memory
• Expandable storage
 Memory Cards
• Credit-card sized device that can be
installed in an adapter or slot in a PC
• PC memory card functions as though it
were a fixed hard disk drive
• Usually called as PCMCIA card because
their standards are created by Personal
Computer Memory Card International
Association
 Memory Cards
• Provide extensive storage capacity
• Portable
• Less failure prone than hard disks
• Some are used for communications
(e.g. Ethernet card)
 Flash Memory
• Silicon computer chip (also called as
flash chip)
• Non-volatile
• Slower than main memory but faster
than hard disk
• Cheaper than main memory but more
expensive hard disk
 Flash Memory
• Sometimes used as an alternative to
main memory in notebook computers
• Requires no power to maintain its
contents – power is only required to
read from and to write to memory
• Wears out after approx. 10000 erasures
• E.g. – Memory stick in digital camera,
chip in MyKad, ATM card, Hand phone
SIM card and etc.
 Expandable Storage
• Expandable storage devices (e.g. zip
drives and CD-RW drives) allow users to
add additional storage capacity by
simply plugging in a removable disk or
cartridge
• Expandable storage devices can be
internal or external
• Ideal for backups
• It’s a combination of hard disk capacity
and diskette portability
Input and Output Devices
 Input Devices

• Personal computer input devices

– Keyboard
– Mouse
• Digital computer cameras
• Scanning devices
• Pen input devices – PDA
• Touch-sensitive screens
 Input Devices

• Voice-recognition devices
– Used in security systems
– To give commands to machines in factory
• Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
(MICR) Device – bank cheques
• Optical data readers
– optical mark recognition (OMR) – MCQ
– optical character recognition (OCR)
• Point-of-sale (POS) devices – terminals
with scanners like barcode scanners
 Output Devices

• Display monitors
• Printers
– Dot matrix
– Ink Jet
– Laser Jet
• Plotters – produce graphical information (maps,
charts, drawings and etc.)
• Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs)
• Virtual Reality Headset – project output in the form of
3D color images
 Lecture 4
Introduction to Computers

Types of Programming Languages

Chapter 4 Principles of Information Systems 6th Edition – Ralph M. Stair,
George W. Reynolds
Chapter 1 C How to Program, 3rd Edition - Deitel and Deitel
 Programming Languages

• A set of keywords, symbols, and a system of

rules for constructing statements by which
humans can communicate instructions to be
executed by a computer

• Different languages have different

characteristics and set of rules (syntax)
 First-Generation Languages

• Machine language – requires the use of binary

symbols
• Based on ASCII (American Standard Code for
Information Interchange)
10 23
11 FF
12 12
13 10
14 50
 Second-Generation Languages

• Assembly languages
– use symbols and codes instead of binary digits to
represent program instructions
• Assemblers – translates into machine code

LOAD BASEPAY
ADD OVERPAY
STORE GROSSPAY
 Third-Generation Languages

• Greater use of symbolic code

• English-like statements and commands

• BASIC, COBOL, C and FORTRAN

– Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
– COmmon Business Oriented Language
– FORmula TRANslator
• E.g. in C
Normal_Pay = Hours_Worked * Pay_Rate;
 Third-Generation Languages

Stage 1 Convert Program

Computer Compiler Machine Language

Program Program

Stage 2 Execute

Machine Language Computer

Program
 Fourth-Generation Languages

• 4GLs
• Programs tell the CPU the desired results, not
how to get them
• Examples: SQL, SAS, Powerhouse, Delphi,
Forte, Essbase, PowerBuilder and many more
• E.g. in SQL
PRINT EMPLOYEE NUMBER IF GROSS PAY > 1000
 Fifth-Generation Languages

• 5GLs
• Uses a visual or graphical development
interface to create source language that is
usually compiled with a 3GL or 4GL compiler
• Examples: Visual Basic, APL, PC COBOL, and
Visual C++, Prolog, LISP and etc.
 Object-Oriented Programming Languages

• Objects - data and actions that can be

performed on the data
• Reusable software components that
model items in the real world
• More understandable, better organized,
and easier to maintain than procedural
programming
 Object-Oriented Programming Languages

• Encapsulation - group items into an

object
• Polymorphism - one procedure can work
with multiple objects
• Inheritance - an object in a particular
class gets attributes of that class
• E.g. C++, Java, C#, Smalltalk and etc.