Energy Consideration + Orifices

Lecture - 7
 EQUATION FOR STEADY MOTION OF A REAL
FLUID ALONG A STREAMLINE

 Following the same procedure as in the previous section,

except that now we shall consider a real fluid. The real fluid
element in a stream tube depicted in Fig. is similar to that of
previous Ideal fluid Fig., except that now with the real fluid
there is an additional force acting because of fluid friction.
t(P + 1/2dP)ds
 where t (tau) is the shear stress at
the boundary of the element and
 (P + 1/2dP)ds is the area over which
the shear stress acts, P being the
perimeter of the end area A, which
may have any shape.
 Writing ƐF = ma along the streamline and neglecting second-
order terms, for steady flow we now get:
dV
 dpA  gAdz  tPds  ( dsA)V
ds
 Dividing through by ρA and rearranging gives
dp tP
 gdz  VdV   ds (5.10)
 A
 Now dividing throughout by g, we get
dp V2 tP
 dz  d   ds (5.11)
 2g A
 These equations apply to steady flow of both compressible
and incompressible real fluids.
Incompressible Fluid:
 For an incompressible fluid (  = constant), we can integrate
Eq. (5.11) directly. Integrating from some point 1 to another
point 2 on the same streamline, where the distance between
them is L, we get for an incompressible real fluid:
p2 p1 V22 V12 tPL
_  z 2  z1   
  2g 2g A
 Or Energy per unit weight:
 p1 V 2 
tPL  p V 2 
  z1  1     2  z2  2  (5.12)
 2 g  A   2 g 

Assumptions:

This equation is based on the following assumptions:

1. Steady flow
2. Incompressible fluid
3. Along a streamline
4. No energy added or removed
Head:
 If we compare Eq. (5.12) with Bernoulli Eq. (5.7) for
ideal flow we see again the only difference is the
additional term tPL /(A) , which represents the loss
of energy per unit weight due to fluid friction
between points 1 and 2.
 The dimension of this energy loss term is linear (i.e.
length’ unit), which agrees with all the other terms in
Eq. (5.12), and so this term is a form of head.
Wall friction head loss:
 The friction causing this loss of energy occurs over the
boundary or surface of the element, of area PL. When, as
occurs often, we consider the stream tube to fill the conduit,
pipe, or duct conveying the fluid, PL becomes the inside
surface area of the conduit wall, and t becomes the shear
stress at the wall, to. Then we can call this energy loss term
the
 Wall friction head loss:
t 0 PL
hf  (5.13)
A
 Energy per unit weight:
 p1 V 2   p V 2 
  z1  1   h f   2  z 2  2  (5.14)
 2 g    2 g 
 
Pipe friction head loss:
 If, as is most common, the conduit is a circular pipe of
diameter D, then P / A  D /(D 2 / 4)  4 / D ,and Eq.
(5.13) reduces to Eq.(5.15)
 Pipe friction head loss:
4t 0 L
hf  (5.15)
D
 Fluid friction loss from any such cause, including wall or pipe
friction, we commonly refer to as head loss, denoted by hL. So
wall friction head loss is usually a part of the total head loss.
In a given conduit, then hL ≥ hf. (if other losses are negligible)
 Problem
 Water flows through a 150-ft-long, 9-in-diameter pipe at 3.8
cfs. At the entry point, the pressure is 30 psi; at the exit point,
15 ft higher than the entry point, the pressure is 20 psi.
Between these two points, find (a) the pipe friction head loss,
(b) the wall shear stress, and (c) the friction force on the pipe.
Solution:
 Exercise
1. ( 5.3.1) A vertical pipe of 4 ft diameter and 60 ft long has a pressure head
of 22.7 ft of water at its upper end. When the flow of water through it is
such that the mean velocity is 16 fps, the pipe friction head loss is hf =
2.8 ft. Find the pressure head at the lower end of the pipe when the flow
is (a) downward; (b) upward.
2. (5.3.4) In Fig. the pipe AB is of uniform diameter and h = 28 ft. The
pressure at A is 30 psi and at B is 40 psi. In which direction is the flow,
and what is the pipe friction head loss in feet of the fluid if the liquid has
a specific weight of (a) 35 Ib/ft3, (b) 92 Ib/ft3?
 Exercise
3. (5.3.6) Water flows through a pipe at 14 cfs. At a point where
the pipe diameter is 18 in, the pressure is 30 psi; at a second
point, further along the flow path and 2 ft lower than the first,
the diameter is 9 in and the pressure is 18 psi. Find the pipe
friction head loss between the two points. Neglect other head
losses.
4. (5.3.7) Water at 20°C flows up a straight 180-mm-diameter
pipe that slopes at 12° to the horizontal. Find the shear stress
at the wall, if the pressure is 100 kPa at point 1, and 25 kPa at
higher point 2 that is 30 m further along the pipe.
 HEAD
 p1 V 2   p2 V 2 
  z1  1   hL    z2  2  (5.28)
 2 g    2 g 
 
 In above equation each term has the dimensions of length. Thus p/,
called the pressure head, represents the energy per unit weight
stored in the fluid by virtue of the pressure under which the fluid
exists.
 Z called the elevation head or potential head, represents the
potential energy per pound of fluid;
 V2/2g, called the velocity head, represents the kinetic energy per
pound of fluid.
 We call the sum of these three terms the total head, usually denoted
by H, so that p V2
H  z (5.35)
 2g
Practical Applications of Bernoulli’s Theorem

 The Bernoulli equation can be applied to a great

many situations not just the pipe flow we have
been considering up to now.
 In the following sections we will see some
examples of its application to flow measurement
from tanks, within pipes as well as in open
channels.
1. Venturimeter
2. Orificemeter
3. Pitot tube
4. Venturiflumes ( used for open channels)
1. Venturimeter:
 The Venturimeter is a device for measuring discharge
in a pipe.
 It consists of three parts.
a. Convergent Cone
b. Throat
c. Divergent Cone
a. Convergent Cone:
 It is a short pipe which converges from a diameter d1
(diameter of a pipe in which a venturimeter is fitted)
to a smaller diameter d2.
 The convergent cone is also known as inlet of the
venturimeter.
 The slope of the converging sides is between 1in 4 or
1in 5.

b. Throat:
 It is a small portion of circular pipe in which the
diameter d2 is kept constant.
c. Divergent Cone:
 It is a pipe, which diverges from a diameter d2 to a
large diameter d1.
 The divergent cone is also known as outlet of
venturimeter.
 The length of the divergent cone is about 3 to 4
times than that of convergent cone.
How it operates?
 It consists of a rapidly converging section, which
increases the velocity of flow and hence reduces
the pressure (acceleration b/w section 1-2). Short
length throat has uniform diameter, i.e., section 2.
 It then returns to the original dimensions of the pipe
by a gently diverging ‘diffuser’ section (retardation
b/w section 2-3), .i.e., after the throat.
 By measuring the pressure differences the
discharge can be calculated.
 This is a particularly accurate method of flow
measurement as energy losses are very small.
Why the divergent cone is made longer?

 As a result of retardation (section 2-3), the velocity decreases

and pressure increases.
 If the pressure is rapidly recovered, then there is every
possibility for the stream of liquid to break away from the
walls of meter.
 In order to avoid the tendency of breaking away the stream of
liquid, the divergent cone is made sufficiently longer.
 Another reason is to minimize friction losses.
 Divergent cone is 3 to 4 times longer than convergent cone.
Measurement of Discharge:
 Consider a venturimeter through which some liquid is
flowing.

Let
 p1 = Pressure at section 1

 V1 = Velocity of water at section 1

 z1 = Datum head at section 1

 a1 = Area of venturimeter at section 1

 p2, V2, z2, a2 = Corresponding values at section 2

Applying Bernoulli' s equation at sections1 and 2 i.e,
p1 V12 p 2 V2 2
 z1    z2  (1)
 2g  2g
Let datum line be the axis of venturime ter,
Now z1  0 and z 2  0
V12 p 2 V2 2
p1
   
 2g  2g
p1 p2 V2 2 V12
or    (2)
  2g 2g
Since the discharge at Section 1 & 2 is continuous, therefore
a 2V2
V1  ( a 1V1  a 2V2 )
a1
a 22V2 2
 V1 2

a1 2
Substituti ng value in equation 2.
2 2
p1 p2V2 a 22V2
   2
  2 g a 1 . 2g
 a12  a 22 
V2
2

  2

2g a1 
p1 p 2
We know that  is the difference between th e pressure heads
 
at section 1 & 2. When the pipe is horizontal , this difference represents
the venturi head and is denoded by h.
V2
2
 a12  a 22 
or h   2

2g  a1 
 a 2

V22  2 gh 2 1 2 
 a1  a 2 
  
 a 
V2  2 gh  1
 a 2  a 2 
 1 2 

We know that discharge through a venturimt er,

Q  Coefficent of Venturimte r . a 2 . V2
Q  C . a 2 . V2
 
 Ca1a2 
Q  2 gh
 a2  a2
 1 2 
Note:
The venturi head (h), in above equation is taken in terms of
liquid head. But, in actual practice, this head is given as
mercury head. In such a case the mercury head should be
converted into the liquid head.
h = (13.6 - s) / s x Head of mercury
Where, 13.6 is Sp. gravity of mercury and ‘s’ is Sp. gravity of liquid.
Inclined Venturimeter:
Problems:
1. A venturimeter with a 150mm diameter at inlet and 100mm at throat is
laid with its axis horizontal and is used for measuring the flow of oil (Sp.
Gravity= 0.9). The oil-mercury differential manometer shows a gauge
difference of 200mm. Assume coefficient of meter as 0.98. Calculate
discharge in liters per minute. (Ans, Q=3834 lit/min).
2. A venturimeter has an area ratio of 9 to 1, the larger diameter being
300mm. During the flow, the recorded pressure head in the large section
in 6.5m and that at the throat 4.25m. If the meter coefficient, C=0.99,
compute discharge through the meter. (Ans, 52 lit/s).
3. A horizontal venturimeter 160mm x 80mm is used to measure the flow of
an oil of Sp. Gracity 0.8. Determine the deflection of the oil-mercury
gauge, if the discharge of the oil is 50lit/s. Take coefficient of
venturimeter as 1. (Ans, 296mm).
Problems:
4. A venturimeter is to be filled to a 250mm diameter pipe, in
which the maximum flow is 7200 lit/min and the pressure
head is 6m of water. What is the minimum diameter of
throat, so that there is no negative head in it? (Ans, 117mm)
5. A 300mm x 150mm venturimeter is provided in a vertical
pipeline carrying oil of Sp. Gravity 0.9, the flow being
upwards. The difference in elevations of the throat section
and entrance section of the venturimeter is 300mm. The
differential U tube mercury manometer shows a gauge
deflection of 250mm. Calculate
i) discharge of the oil
ii) pressure difference b/w the entrance and throat section.
(Ans, i) Q = 149 lit/s ii) 3.695m)
2. Orifice Meter:
 An orifice meter is used to measure the discharge in a pipe. It
consists of a plate having a sharp edged circular hole known
as an orifice. This plate is fixed inside a pipe.
Measurement of Discharge:
 A mercury manometer is inserted to know the difference of
pressure between the pipe and the throat. ( i.e., orifice)

Let
 h = Reading of mercury manometer

 p1 = Pressure at the inlet

 V1 = Velocity of liquid at inlet

 a1 = Area of pipe at inlet

 p2, V2, a2 = Corresponding values at throat

Applying Bernoulli' s equation for inlet of pipe and the throat,
p1 V12 p 2 V2 2
 z1    z2  (1)
 2g  2g
p1 V2 2 V12
p2
   ( z1  z 2 )
  2g 2g

or h 
V2 2 V12

2g 2g 2g

1

V22  V12 )
Since the discharge is continuous, therefore
a 2V2
V1  ( a 1V1  a 2V2 )
a1
a 22V2 2
 V1 
2

a1 2
Substituting value in equation 2.
1  2 a 22V2  V2 2  a12  a 22 
2
h V2     
2g  a1 2  2 g  a2 
  1 
 a12 
V2  2 gh 2
2 
 a  a2 
 1 2 

 
 a1 
V2  2 gh  
 a2  a2
 1 2 
We know that discharge,
Q  Coefficent of Orifice Meter . a 2 . V2
Q  C . a 2 . V2
 
 Ca1a 2 
Q  2 gh (Same as venturime ter)
 a2  a2
 1 2 
Problem:
 An orifice meter consisting of 100 mm diameter orifice in a
250mm diameter pipe has coefficient equal to 0.65. The pipe
delivers oil (Sp. Gravity 0.8). The pressure difference on the
two sides of the orifice plate is measured by a mercury oil
differential manometer. If the differential gauge reads 80mm
of mercury, calculate the rate of flow in lit/s. (Ans, 82 lit/s)
3. Pitot Tube:
 A Pitot (pēˊtō) tube is an instrument to determine the velocity
of flow at the required point in a pipe or a stream.
 It consists of glass tube bent through 90o
 The lower end of the tube faces the direction of the flow.
 The liquid rises up in the tube due to the pressure exerted by
the flowing liquid .
 By measuring the rise of liquid in the tube, we can find out the
velocity of the liquid flow.
Finding Velocity:
 Let
 h = Height of liquid in the pitot tube above the surface.
 H = Depth of tube in the liquid
 V = velocity of the liquid
 Applying Bernoulli’s equation for the section 1 & 2.

V2
H  Hh
2g
V2
h
2g
V  2 gh
Problem:
 A pitot tube was inserted in a pipe to measure the
velocity of water in it. If the water rises in the tube is
200mm. Find velocity of water. (Ans, 1.98m/s)
 (Pitot-static tube is used to measure velocity in
pipes where static pressure is difficult to measure)
FLOW THROUGH
ORIFICES

Measurement of Discharge
Introduction:
 “Orifice is an opening in a vessel/water tank through
which the liquid flows out.”
 This opening is called an orifice, so long as the level
of the liquid on the upstream side is above the top of
the orifice.
 The usual purpose of an orifice is the measurement of
discharge.
 It can be provided in the vertical side of the vessel on
in the base. But the former is more common.
Types of Orifices According to:

• Small
Size • Large

• Circular
Shape • Rectangular
• Triangular

Shape of the • Sharp-edged

• Bell-mouthed
edge
Nature of • Fully submerged
• Partially submerged
Discharge
Important Terms:
 Jet of Water:
“The continuous stream of liquid, that comes out or
flows out of an orifice, is known as Jet of water.”
 Vena Contracta:
 Vena contracta is the point in a fluid stream where
the diameter of the stream is the least, and fluid
velocity is at its maximum.
Vena Contracta:
 Consider a tank, fitted with an orifice. The liquid particles, in
order to flow out through the orifice, move towards the orifice
from all directions.
 A few of the particles first move downward, then take a turn
to enter into the orifice and then finally flow through it.
 It may be noted, that the liquid particles lose some energy,
while taking the turn to enter into the orifice.
 It has been thus observed that the jet, after leaving the orifice,
gets contracted.
 The maximum contraction takes place at a section slightly on
the downstream side of the orifice, where the jet is more or
less horizontal. Such a section is known as vena contracta as
shown in the figure.
Vena Contracta:
Hydraulic Coefficients:
Following four coefficients are known as hydraulic coefficients
or orifice Coefficient.

1) Coefficient of contraction
2) Coefficient of velocity
3) Coefficient of discharge
4) Coefficient of resistance
1. Coefficient of Contraction:
 “The ratio of area of jet, at vena contracta, to the area of
orifice is known as coefficient of contraction.”
 Mathematically,

Area of jet at vena Contracta

Cc 
Area of Orifice

 The value varies slightly with the available head of the liquid,
size and the shape of the orifice.
 An average value of Cc is about 0.64.
2. Coefficient of Velocity:
 “The ratio of actual velocity of the jet, at vena contracta, to the
theoretical velocity is known as coefficient of velocity.”
 Mathematically,

Actual velocity of jet at vena Contracta

Cv 
Theoretical velocity of jet

 The difference between the velocities is due to friction of the

orifice.
 The value of coefficient of velocity varies slightly with the
different shapes of the edges of the orifices.
 For a sharp edged orifice, the value of Cv increases with the
head of water.
2. Coefficient of Velocity:
 The following table gives the values of Cv for an orifice of
10mm diameter with the corresponding head (given by
Weisback).
H 20mm 500mm 3.5m 20m 100m
Cv 0.959 0.967 0.975 0.991 0.994

Note:
 An Average value of Cv is about 0.97.
 The theoretical velocity of jet at vena contracta is given by
relation :
V  2 gh
Where, h is head of water at vena contracta.
3. Coefficient of Discharge:
 “It is the ratio of actual discharge through an orifice to the
theoretical discharge.”
 Mathematically,
Actual discharge
Cd 
Theoretical discharge
Actual velocity x Actual area

Theoretical velocity x Theoretical area
 C v x Cc
 Average value of coefficient of discharge varies from 0.60 to
0.64.
4. Coefficient of Resistance:
 “The ratio of loss of head in the orifice to the head of water
available at the exit of the orifice is known as coefficient of
resistance.”
 Mathematically,
Loss of head in the orifice
Cr 
Head of water

 The loss of head in the orifice takes place, because the walls
of the orifice offer some resistance to the liquid as it comes
out.
 The coefficient of resistance is generally neglected, while
solving numerical.
Problems:
1. A jet of water issues from an orifice of diameter 20mm
under a head of 1m. What is the coefficient of discharge for
the orifice, if actual discharge is 0.85lit/s. (Ans, 0.61)
2. A 60mm diameter orifice is discharging water under a head
of 9m. Calculate the actual discharge through the orifice in
Lit/s and actual velocity of the jet in m/s at vena contracta, if
Cd = 0.625 and Cv = 0.98. (Ans, Q = 23.5 lit/s & Vac =
13m/s)